Fig. 1.

Global overview of current distribution and origin of muskox populations: endemic, translocated, and mixed. Translocated includes introduced and re-introduced, i.e., to range once occupied either in recent or distant past. Mixed is translocation to an area with endemic muskoxen. Numbering corresponds with Table 1, and indicates an administrative region, a management unit, or a population. The provided boundaries are guidelines, often reflecting administrative or political regions. They are not a precise distribution/extent for a specific population, e.g., since muskoxen can and do travel across sea-ice, even the islands are not strict boundaries. The muskox distribution in central Canada around 60°N is uncertain owing to anecdotal observations and low animal density. Populations 3, 7, 19, 34, and 36 originated as range expansions by translocated populations. Zackenberg Station is the red star in NE Greenland (see Electronic Supplementary Materials S1, Muskoxen: Past and present). Dashed line is the Arctic Circle