Table 1. Pooled All-Cause Crude Mortality Rates Among People Using Extramedical Opioids by Sex, Age Group, Drug Use Characteristics, and Region.
| Variable | Mortality | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crude Rate | Standardized Ratio | |||||
| No. of Cohorts | Pooled Crude Mortality Rate per 100 Person-Years (95% CI) | I2, % | No. of Cohorts | Pooled Standardized Mortality Ratio (95% CI) | I2, % | |
| All-cause mortality | 99a | 1.59 (1.40-1.80) | 99.7 | 43 | 10.03 (7.64-13.17) | 99.9 |
| Sex | ||||||
| Male | 47 | 1.85 (1.51-2.27) | 99.7 | 31 | 8.56 (6.70-10.93) | 99.9 |
| Female | 43 | 1.28 (1.03-1.58) | 99.4 | 30 | 13.40 (8.90-20.16) | 99.9 |
| Ageb | ||||||
| Younger | 18 | 1.25 (0.91-1.71) | 99.5 | 5 | 10.96 (4.59-26.16) | 99.8 |
| Older | 18 | 2.09 (1.51-2.91) | 99.9 | 5 | 5.24 (4.53-6.05) | 94.6 |
| Follow-up completed | ||||||
| By end of 1994 | 7 | 1.85 (0.97-3.55) | 99.8 | 4 | 9.33 (4.98-17.46) | 99.4 |
| Continued or commenced in 1995 or later | 90 | 1.57 (1.39-1.78) | 99.6 | 39 | 10.10 (7.56-13.50) | 99.9 |
| Cohorts | ||||||
| Injectingc | 19 | 2.71 (2.14-3.42) | 95.2 | 10 | 16.37 (10.92-24.55) | 98.8 |
| Dependentd | 67 | 1.54 (1.33-1.78) | 99.7 | 36 | 10.31 (7.63-13.93) | 99.9 |
| Recruitment setting | ||||||
| Drug treatment or harm reduction setting | 57 | 1.58 (1.37-1.82) | 99.5 | 29 | 10.25 (7.78-13.51) | 99.8 |
| Other settingse | 40 | 1.60 (1.31-1.96) | 99.7 | 14 | 9.42 (7.74-11.46) | 99.5 |
| GBD regionf | ||||||
| Australasia | 7 | 0.80 (0.67-0.96) | 91.3 | 3 | 8.63 (6.49-11.47) | 93.2 |
| East Asia | 6 | 1.80 (1.37-2.35) | 96.7 | 4 | 9.89 (6.15-15.92) | 98.2 |
| Southeast Asia | 3 | 4.53 (3.11-6.62) | 69.3 | 1 | 13.40 (11.40-15.30) | NA |
| South Asia | 2 | 7.62 (4.84-12.00) | 60.9 | NI | NA | NA |
| North Africa and Middle East | 2 | 3.40 (0.97-11.87) | 95.2 | NI | NA | NA |
| Central Europe | 3 | 1.17 (0.61-2.23) | 96.2 | 1 | 12.06 (9.60-15.00) | NA |
| Western Europe | 54 | 1.56 (1.32-1.84) | 99.5 | 27 | 11.87 (9.15-15.40) | 99.8 |
| North America | 20 | 1.61 (1.36-1.91) | 99.5 | 7 | 5.02 (4.21-5.98) | 99.2 |
Abbreviations: GBD, Global Burden of Disease; NA, not applicable; NI, not identified.
b
Studies presented age-specific data using various age groups; this analysis includes studies in which the age groups could be summarized as younger than 30 years vs 30 years or older or younger than 35 years vs 35 years or older.
c
Includes only cohorts defined by opioid injecting.
d
Includes only cohorts defined by opioid dependence or opioid use disorder.
e
Other settings include acute care (eg, emergency departments), prisons, and community settings.
f
Regions are defined per the GBD project. No studies were found for the following GBD regions: Latin America and the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa, Oceania, Central Asia, or Eastern Europe.