Table 4. Nutritional and micronutrient status among non-pregnant women of reproductive age, Ghana 2017.
| National | Urban | Rural | p-value c | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristic | N | % / Mean a | 95%CI b | N | %/ Mean | 95%CI | N | %/ Mean | 95%CI | |
| Nutritional status d | ||||||||||
| BMI, mean | 1003 | 24.5 | (24.1; 25.0) | 438 | 25.8 | (25.2; 26.4) | 565 | 23.3 | (22.9; 23.8) | <0.001 |
| Severely undernourished, % | 1002 | 0.5 | (0.2; 1.2) | 437 | 0.6 | (0.2; 1.9) | 565 | 0.4 | (0.1; 1.7) | 0.63 |
| Moderately undernourished, % | 1002 | 1.3 | (0.8; 2.2) | 437 | 0.9 | (0.4; 2.3) | 565 | 1.7 | (0.9; 3.1) | 0.26 |
| At risk for undernutrition, % | 1002 | 6.2 | (4.6; 8.2) | 437 | 4.3 | (2.8; 6.7) | 565 | 8.0 | (5.6; 11.2) | <0.05 |
| Normal, % | 1002 | 53.0 | (48.6; 57.4) | 437 | 44.6 | (38.9; 50.4) | 565 | 61.1 | (55.2; 66.7) | <0.001 |
| Overweight, % | 1002 | 24.7 | (21.0; 28.8) | 437 | 29.7 | (23.5; 36.9) | 565 | 19.8 | (16.2; 24.0) | <0.01 |
| Obese, % | 1002 | 14.3 | (11.5; 17.7) | 437 | 19.8 | (15.4; 25.2) | 565 | 9.0 | (6.9; 11.7) | <0.001 |
| Micronutrient status | ||||||||||
| Hemoglobin concentration | ||||||||||
| Hemoglobin (g/L), mean | 999 | 127.6 | (126.4; 128.9) | 436 | 127.9 | (125.8; 130.1) | 563 | 127.3 | (125.6; 128.7) | 0.62 |
| Any anemia, % | 999 | 21.7 | (18.7; 25.1) | 436 | 21.6 | (17.5; 26.4) | 563 | 21.8 | (17.4; 26.8) | 0.96 |
| Moderate anemia, % | 999 | 7.0 | (5.1; 9.5) | 436 | 8.2 | (5.7; 11.7) | 563 | 5.8 | (3.4; 9.8) | 0.29 |
| Severe anemia, % | 999 | 0.4 | (0.2; 1.3) | 436 | 0.9 | (0.3; 2.5) | 563 | - | - | 0.05 |
| Iron status | ||||||||||
| Ferritin (μg/L), median (IQR) e | 987 | 43.1 | (23.3; 72.4) | 438 | 40.4 | (19.2; 72.2) | 549 | 44.3 | (27.3; 72.4) | <0.05 |
| Iron deficiency, % f | 987 | 13.7 | (11.2; 16.6) | 438 | 15.7 | (12.5; 19.7) | 549 | 11.7 | (8.3; 16.1) | 0.15 |
| Iron deficiency anemia, % | 989 | 8.9 | (6.7; 11.7) | 435 | 9.8 | (7.2; 13.2) | 554 | 8.0 | (4.8; 12.9) | 0.48 |
| Vitamin A status | ||||||||||
| RBP (μmol/L), mean g | 987 | 1.64 | (1.59; 1.70) | 438 | 1.62 | (1.56; 1.68) | 549 | 1.66 | (1.57; 1.76) | 0.49 |
| Vitamin A deficiency, % h | 987 | 1.5 | (0.8; 2.9) | 438 | 1.1 | (0.4; 2.8) | 549 | 1.9 | (0.8; 4.4) | 0.40 |
| Folate status | ||||||||||
| Serum folate, median (IQR) | 473 | 9.3 | (5.4; 16.4) | 211 | 9.3 | (4.9; 17.0) | 262 | 9.4 | (5.5; 15.3) | 0.89 |
| Folate deficiency, % i | 473 | 53.8 | (47.6; 60.0) | 211 | 55.5 | (48.4; 62.3) | 262 | 52.2 | (42.3; 62.0) | 0.60 |
| Vitamin B12 status | ||||||||||
| Serum vitamin B12, mean | 471 | 454.0 | (426.8; 481.3) | 210 | 471.4 | (426.8; 516.1) | 261 | 437.0 | (402.3; 471.8) | 0.23 |
| Vitamin B12 deficiency j, % | 471 | 6.9 | (4.8; 9.8) | 210 | 6.4 | (3.8; 10.7) | 261 | 7.4 | (4.5; 11.9) | 0.70 |
| Vitamin B12 marginal j, % | 471 | 11.9 | (9.0;15.6) | 210 | 10.4 | (6.3; 16.7) | 261 | 13.4 | (9.9; 17.8) | 0.38 |
a Percentages/means weighted for unequal probability of selection.
b CI = confidence interval, calculated taking into account the complex sampling design. For median calculations, inter-quartile range is provided.
c P-values measuring the differences in mean and prevalence between urban and rural areas was calculated using t-test and chi-square test; the Mann-Whitney test was used to calculate p-values between medians.
d Severe undernutrition defined as BMI <16.0; moderate undernutrition defined as BMI 16.0–16.9; at risk of undernutrition defined as BMI 17.0–18.5; normal BMI defined as BMI 18.5–24.9; overweight defined as BMI 25.0–29.9; obese defined as BMI >30.
e Adjusted for inflammation [20]; corresponding unadjusted median ferritin concentration 45.9 μg/L (IQR: 25.0; 83.7).
f Based on inflammation-adjusted ferritin concentration [20].
g Retinol-binding protein, adjusted for inflammation [22]; corresponding unadjusted mean RBP concentration 1.65 μmol/L (95%CI: 1.59; 1.71).
h Based on the retinol-binding protein, adjusted for inflammation [22].
i Folate deficiency defined as serum folate <10 nmol/L; this analyte was measured only in a random sub-sample of women.
j Vitamin B12 deficiency and marginal status defined as plasma B12 <148 pmol/L & plasma B12 ≥148 & <220; this analyte was measured only in a random sub-sample of women.