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. 2020 Jan 1;10(4):1479–1499. doi: 10.7150/thno.40659

Table 1.

Pseudogenes widely participate in the pathogenesis of different diseases

Diseases Pseudogenes Species Tissues Sponge Targets Expression
Pattern		 Overall
Survival		 Potential Functions / Applications References
HCC ANXA2P2 Homo Sapiens Liver - Upregulated Decline Induces migration and invasion of HCC cells in vitro Wang et al. (2019) 84
RACGAP1P Homo Sapiens Cell Line miR-15-5p Upregulated Decline Sequestrates miR-15-5p from RACGAP1;
Activates RhoA/ERK signaling		 Wang et al. (2019) 85
RP11-564D11.3 Homo Sapiens Liver miR-9-5p;
miR-101-3p;
miR-200 family		 Upregulated Decline Sequestrates miR-9-5p, miR-101-3p, and miR-200
family to target VEGFA to initiate and promote HCC		 Song et al. (2019) 86
SUMO1P3 Homo Sapiens Liver;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Promotes cell proliferation, migration,
invasion and radiation resistant of HCC in vitro 		Zhou et al. (2019) 87
UBE2CP3 Homo Sapiens Liver;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Induces angiogenesis functions of HUVECs by
activating ERK/HIF-1α/p70S6K/VEGFA signaling		 Lin et al. (2018) 88
OCT4-pg1 Homo Sapiens Liver;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated - Promotes proliferation of HCC
cells by inducing activation of AKT		 Pan et al. (2018) 89
OCT4-pg4 Homo Sapiens Liver;
Cell Line		 miR-145 Upregulated Decline Serves as a miR-145 decoy to increase its
parental gene OCT4 expression to promote HCC		 Wang et al. (2013) 74
PTENP1 Homo Sapiens Liver;
Cell Line		 miR-193a-3p Downregulated Elevation Sequestrates miR-193a-3p to suppress cell growth,
migration and invasion of HCC via PTEN pathway		 Qian et al. (2017) 90
UBE2CP3 Homo Sapiens Liver;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Promotes epithelial to mesenchymal
transition (EMT) in vitro and in vivo 		Cao et al. (2017) 91
INTS6P1 Homo Sapiens Liver;
Cell Line		 miR-17-5p Downregulated - Serves as a miR-17-5p decoy to induce its
parental gene INTS6 expression to inhibit HCC		 Peng et al. (2015) 92
E2F3P1 Homo Sapiens Liver - - - The A allele of rs9909601 in E3F3P1 is positively
correlated with a better prognosis than the G allele		 Pan et al. (2014) 39
Liu et al. (2013) 93
BC PTTG3P Homo Sapiens Breast miR-129-5p;
miR-376c-3p;
miR-383-5p		 Upregulated Decline Serves as a miRNA decoy to exert an oncogenic
role via a miRNA-mRNA regulatory network		 Lou et al. (2019) 94
PTENP1 Homo Sapiens Breast - Downregulated - Inhibits growth and migration and enhances
doxorubicin sensitivity in ER-negative cells;
Increases ER-positive cell growth and decreases ERα		 Yndestad et al. (2018) 95
CKS1BP7 Homo Sapiens Breast - Upregulated - Interacts with IGF1R to enhance cell proliferation Liu et al. (2018) 96
CYP4Z2P Homo Sapiens Breast;
Cell Line		 miR-125a-3p Upregulated - Sequesters miR-125a-3p to trigger
a hTERT-dependent apoptotic inhibition;
Induces phosphorylation of ERK1/2
and PI3K/Akt to enhance tumor-angiogenesis		 Li et al. (2017) 97
Zheng et al. (2015) 98
Zheng et al. (2014) 99
HMGA1P7 Homo Sapiens Breast
Cell Line		 miR-15;
miR-16;
miR-214;
miR-761		 Upregulated - Acts as a ceRNA to promote H19 and Igf2 expression
to induce MCF-7 cell proliferation in vitro 		De Martino et al.
(2016) 100
GC NANOGP8 Homo Sapiens Cell Line - Upregulated - Binds to the promoter region of DBC1 to induce
cell proliferation and suppress apoptosis		 Li et al. (2019) 101
GBAP1 Homo Sapiens Stomach miR-212-3p - - Serves as a miR-212-3p decoy to induce GBA;
SNP rs2990245 in GBAP1 influences the DNA
methylation status of its own promoter region		 Ma et al. (2019) 102
PTENP1 Homo Sapiens Stomach;
Cell Line		 - Downregulated - G allele of rs7853346 in PTENP1 is
negatively correlated with the risk of GC;
Suppresses GC proliferation, migration and invasion		 Ge et al. (2017) 103
Guo et al. (2016) 104
OCT4-pg1 Homo Sapiens Stomach;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Elevates expression of various growth factors
to enhance GC cell proliferation and angiogenesis		 Hayashi et al. (2015) 105
SUMO1P3 Homo Sapiens Stomach - Upregulated Decline Positively correlates with GC growth,
differentiation and lymphatic metastasis		 Mei et al. (2013) 10
RCC DUXAP8 Homo Sapiens Kidney;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Alters miR-126/CED-9 signaling to
promote RCC cell proliferation and migration		 Huang et al. (2018) 106
ccRCC PTENP1 Homo Sapiens Kidney;
Cell Line		 miR-21 Downregulated Elevation Serves as a miR-21 decoy to increase PTEN;
Inhibits cell growth, migration, invasion
and sensitivity to cisplatin and gemcitabine		 Yu et al. (2014) 107
LUAD CSDAP1 Homo Sapiens Lung;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Positively correlates with LUAD
occurrence, development and prognosis		 Xu et al. (2018) 108
CHIAP2 Homo Sapiens Lung;
Cell Line		 miR-873-3p;
miR-3614-5p		 Downregulated - Serves as a miRNA decoy to regulate
NFATC2 or GSK3β in WNT signaling pathway		 Shang et al. (2019) 109
NSCLC DUXAP8 Homo Sapiens Lung;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Recruits LSD1 and EZH2 to the promoters of EGR1 and RHOB to enhance NSCLC malignant phenotypes Sun et al. (2017) 110
DUXAP10 Homo Sapiens Lung;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Interacts with LSD1 to epigenetically silence
LATS2 and RRAD to induce tumorigenesis in NSCLC		 Wei et al. (2017) 111
CRC MYLKP1 Homo Sapiens Colon;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated - Suppresses its parental gene MYLK expression;
Two SNPs, rs12490683 and rs12497343
in MYLKP1 significantly elevate the risk of CRC		 Lynn et al. (2018) 112
Han et al. (2011) 80
SUMO1P3 Homo Sapiens Colon;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Induces expression of cyclin D1, Vimentin
and VEGFA and decreases E-cadherin to promote tumorigenesis and angiogenesis of CRC		 Zhang et al. (2017) 113
TPTE2P1 Homo Sapiens Colon;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Induces cell cycle progression and
inhibits apoptosis of CRC cells in vitro and in vivo 		Dai et al. (2019) 114
EEC HMGA1P6 HMGA1P7 Homo Sapiens Endometrium - Upregulated Decline Positively correlates with expression of its parental gene HMGA1 and EEC progression Palumbo Junior et al. (2019) 115
UCS HMGA1P6 Homo Sapiens Uterus let-7a;
miR-26a;
miR-16;
miR-214		 Upregulated - Serves as a miRNA decoy implicated
in downregulation of the HMGA1-targeting miRNAs, contributing to HMGA1 overexpression		 Brunetti et al. (2019) 116
OCS HMGA1P6 HMGA1P7 Homo Sapiens Ovary let-7a;
miR-26a;
miR-16;
miR-214		 Upregulated - Serves as miRNA decoys implicated
in downregulation of the HMGA1-targeting miRNAs, contributing to HMGA1 overexpression		 Esposito et al. (2014) 72
Brunetti et al. (2019) 116
GBM DUXAP8 Homo Sapiens Brain;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Promotes cell proliferation and
colony formation of GBM in vitro 		Zhao et al. (2019) 117
LGMNP1 Homo Sapiens Cell Line - Upregulated - Reduces DNA damage processes and
apoptosis to help acquire radiotherapy resistance		 Xu et al. (2019) 118
PT HMGA1P6 HMGA1P7 Homo Sapiens Pituitary;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated - Serve as ceRNAs to induce parental gene HMGA1 expression and increase cell proliferation and migration Esposito et al. (2015) 119
CC OCT4-pg1 Homo Sapiens Cervix;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated - Induces cell proliferation and migration and
inhibits apoptosis of CC cells in vitro and in vivo 		Yu et al. (2019) 120
PDAC DUXAP8 Homo Sapiens Pancreas;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Serves as a scaffold for EZH2 and LSD1
to epigenetically silence CDKN1A and KLF2 		Lian et al. (2018) 121
SUMO1P3 Homo Sapiens Pancreas;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Induces development of EMT to enhance
cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro 		Tian et al. (2018) 122
ESCC TUSC2P Homo Sapiens Esophagus;
Cell Line		 miR-17-5p;
miR-520a-3p;
miR-608;
miR-611		 Downregulated Elevation Plays a tumor suppressive role in a miRNA-binding manner to induce a cell growth and invasion inhibition Liu et al. (2018) 123
FTH1P3 Homo Sapiens Esophagus;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated - Enhances cell proliferation, migration,
and invasion by activating Sp1 and NF-κB		 Yang et al. (2018) 124
DLBCL Braf-rs1 Murine Spleen;
Cell Line		 miR-134;
miR-543;
miR-653		 Upregulated Decline Functions in a ceRNA manner to
elevate BRAF expression and to regulate MAPK signaling and cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo 		Karreth et al. (2015) 73
BRAFP1 Homo Sapiens Spleen;
Cell Line		 miR-30a;
miR-182;
miR-876;
miR-590		 Upregulated Decline Functions in a ceRNA manner to
elevate BRAF expression and to regulate MAPK signaling and cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo 		Karreth et al. (2015) 73
AML OCT4-pg1 Homo Sapiens Blood - Downregulated Elevation Contributes to the diagnosis and prognosis of AML Yi et al. (2019) 125
CML OCT4-pg1 Homo Sapiens Cell Line - - - Interacts directly with OCT-4, SOX2, and
NANOG and indirectly with ABC transporters		 Lettnin et al. (2019) 126
TC HMGA1P6 HMGA1P7 Homo Sapiens Thyroid;
Cell Line		 miR-15;
miR-16;
miR-214;
miR-761		 Upregulated - Serve as miRNA decoys to induce parental gene HMGA1 and cancer-related genes expression to promote malignant phenotypes of cells in vitro Esposito et al. (2014) 72
OSCC FTH1P3 Homo Sapiens Oral;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Promotes cell proliferation, migration and invasion
by inducing PI3K/Akt/GSK3β/Wnt/β-catenin signaling		 Liu et al. (2018) 127
BA ANXA2P3 Homo Sapiens Liver;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated - Induces cell cycle progression and growth but inhibits apoptosis by activating ANXA2/ANXA2P3 signaling Nuerzhati et al.
(2019) 128
SPE HK2P1 Homo Sapiens Decidua;
Cell Line		 miR-6887-3p Downregulated - Promotes glycolytic metabolism, and HESC decidualization by sequestering miR-6887-3p Lv et al. (2018) 129
PGK1P2 Homo Sapiens Decidua miR-330-5p Downregulated - Sequesters miR-330-5p to affect decidualization
by regulating angiogenesis and glycolysis metabolism		 Tong et al. (2018) 130
Schizophrenia NDUFV2P1 Homo Sapiens Brain;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated - Negatively correlates with pre- and mature
NDUFV2 and with CoI-driven cellular respiration		 Bergman et al.
(2018) 131
ASD lncLRFN5-10 Homo Sapiens Cell Line - Downregulated - Positively affects expression of non-deleted LRFN5 Cappuccio et al.
(2019) 132
OA PMS2L2 Homo Sapiens Cell Line miR-203 Downregulated - Serves as a miR-203 decoy to block
Wnt/β-catenin and JAK/STAT signaling pathway		 Li et al. (2019) 133
AD PTENP1 Homo Sapiens Aorta;
Cell Line		 miR-21 Upregulated - Induces PTEN to promote apoptosis and to
inhibit HASMC growth by competing for miR-21		 Lai et al. (2019) 134
MM PDIA3P Homo Sapiens Bone Marrow;
Cell Line		 - Upregulated Decline Interacts with c-Myc to bind to G6PD promoter and to induce PPP flux to affect cell growth and drug resistant Yang et al. (2018) 135

Abbreviations: AD: aortic dissection; AML: acute myelocytic leukemia; ASD: autism spectrum disorder; BA: biliary atresia; BC: breast cancer; CC: cervical cancer; ccRCC: clear cell renal cell carcinoma; ceRNA: competing endogenous RNA; CML: chronic myelocytic leukemia; CRC: colorectal cancer; DLBCL: diffuse large B cell lymphoma; EEC: endometrioid endometrial carcinomas; EMT: epithelial to mesenchymal transition; ESCC: esophageal squamous cell carcinoma; GBM: glioblastoma; GC: gastric cancer; HASMC: human aortic smooth muscle cell; HCC: hepatocellular carcinoma; HESC: human endometrial stromal cell; HUVEC: human umbilical vein endothelial cell; LUAD: lung adenocarcinoma; miRNA: microRNA; MM: multiple myeloma; mRNA: messenger RNA; NSCLC: non-small cell lung cancer; OA: osteoarthritis; OCS: ovarian carcinosarcomas; OSCC: oral squamous cell carcinoma; PDAC: pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma; PT: pituitary tumor; RCC: renal cell carcinoma; SNP: single nucleotide polymorphism; SPE: severe preeclampsia; TC: thyroid carcinoma; UCS: uterine carcinosarcomas.