Table 2.

Overexpression or knockdown effects of pseudogenes in vitro and in vivo

Pseudogenes	Treatments	Diseases	Effects	References
ANXA2P2	Knockdown	HCC	Inhibits migration and invasion of HCC cells in vitro	Wang et al. (2019) 84
RACGAP1P	Overexpression	HCC	Sequestrates miR-15-5p to trigger RhoA/ERK signaling; Promotes cell growth and migration of HCC in vitro and in vivo	Wang et al. (2019) 85
SUMO1P3	Knockdown	HCC	Suppresses proliferation, migration, invasion and enhances radio-sensitivity of HCC cells	Zhou et al. (2019) 87
UBE2CP3	Overexpression	HCC	Enhances HUVEC proliferation, migration and tube formation by inducing ERK/HIF-1a/p70S6K/VEGFA signaling	Lin et al. (2018) 88
OCT4-pg1	Overexpression	HCC	Promotes HCC cell proliferation by activating AKT in vitro	Pan et al. (2018) 89
OCT4-pg4	Knockdown	HCC	Suppresses cell proliferation and colony formation in vitro and in vivo	Wang et al. (2013) 74
PTENP1	Overexpression	HCC	Inhibits HCC growth, migration and invasion via the PTEN pathway in vitro and in vivo	Qian et al. (2017) 90
UBE2CP3	Knockdown	HCC	Suppresses the epithelial to mesenchymal transition in vitro and in vivo	Cao et al. (2017) 91
INTS6P1	Knockdown	HCC	Induces HCC growth and migration in vitro and in vivo	Peng et al. (2015) 92
PTENP1	Overexpression	BC	Promotes ER-positive cell growth and decreases PTEN1 and ERα; Inhibits growth and migration and enhances PTEN1 in ER-negative cells	Yndestad et al. (2018) 95
CYP4Z2P	Knockdown	BC	Releases miR-125a-3p to inhibit a hTERT-mediated apoptotic repression	Li et al. (2017) 97
NANOGP8	Knockdown	GC	Suppresses DBC1 to inhibit cell proliferation and promote apoptosis	Li et al. (2019) 101
OCT4-pg1	Overexpression	GC	Promotes expression levels of different growth factors to induce GC cell proliferation and angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo	Hayashi et al. (2015) 105
DUXAP8	Knockdown	RCC	Increases miR-126 to inhibit CED-9 expression to suppress RCC cell growth and migration in vitro	Huang et al. (2018) 106
PTENP1	Overexpression	ccRCC	Sequesters miR-21 to induce PTEN expression to suppress cell growth, migration, and invasion and increase sensitivity to cisplatin and gemcitabine in vitro and in vivo	Yu et al. (2014) 107
CHIAP2	Overexpression	LUAD	Sequesters miR-873-3p and miR-3614-5p to inhibit cell proliferation and invasion	Shang et al. (2019) 109
DUXAP8	Knockdown	NSCLC	Inhibits recruitment of LSD1 and EZH2 to the promoter regions of EGR1 and RHOB to suppress NSCLC malignant phenotypes in vitro and in vivo	Sun et al. (2017) 110
DUXAP10	Knockdown	NSCLC	Promotes transcriptions of LATS2 and RRAD to restrain NSCLC cell growth, migration and invasion in vitro and in vivo	Wei et al. (2017) 111
MYLKP1	Overexpression	CRC	Suppresses expression of MYLK and promotes cell proliferation and migration	Lynn et al. (2018) 112 Han et al. (2011) 80
SUMO1P3	Knockdown	CRC	Suppresses expression levels of cyclin D1, Vimentin, and VEGFA and enhances E-cadherin to reduce CRC malignant behavior in vitro and in vivo	Zhang et al. (2017) 113
TPTE2P1	Knockdown	CRC	Promotes cell cycle arrest at S phase and induces apoptosis by activating the BCL2/Caspase 3 signaling cascade in vitro and in vivo	Dai et al. (2019) 114
DUXAP8	Knockdown	GBM	Suppresses cell proliferation and colony formation in GBM in vitro	Zhao et al. (2019) 117
LGMNP1	Overexpression	GBM	Reduces DNA damage processes and apoptosis to resist radiotherapy	Xu et al. (2019) 118
HMGA1P6 HMGA1P7	Overexpression	PT	Functions as a decoy for HMGA1-targeting miRNAs to promote HMGA1 expression and induce AtT20 cell proliferation and migration	Esposito et al. (2015) 119
OCT4-pg1	Knockdown	CC	Suppresses cell proliferation and migration and promotes apoptosis of CC cells in vitro and in vivo	Yu et al. (2019) 120
DUXAP8	Knockdown	PDAC	Increases expression levels of CDKN1A, and KLF2 to inhibit cell proliferation and promote apoptosis in vitro and in vivo	Lian et al. (2018) 121
SUMO1P3	Knockdown	PDAC	Reverses the process of EMT to inhibit cell proliferation, migration and invasion in vitro	Tian et al. (2018) 122
TUSC2P	Overexpression	ESCC	Suppresses cell growth and invasion in a miRNA-binding manner in vitro	Liu et al. (2018) 123
FTH1P3	Knockdown	ESCC	Inhibits cell growth, migration and invasion by silencing Sp1 and NF-κB in vitro	Yang et al. (2018) 124
Braf-rs1	Overexpression	DLBCL	Sequesters miRNAs to activate MAPK signaling and cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo	Karreth et al. (2015) 73
BRAFP1	Overexpression	DLBCL	Sequesters miRNAs to activate MAPK signaling and cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo	Karreth et al. (2015) 73
OCT4-pg1	Knockdown	CML	Reduces expression and activity of OCT4 as well as ABCB1 and activates ALOX5 and ABCC1 to render cell sensitive to chemotherapy	Lettnin et al. (2019) 126
HMGA1P6 HMGA1P7	Overexpression	TC	Sequesters HMGA1-targeting miRNAs to increase cell proliferation, migration and invasion and suppress apoptosis in vitro	Esposito et al. (2014) 72
FTH1P3	Knockdown	OSCC	Suppresses cell proliferation, migration and invasion by reducing activation of PI3K/Akt/GSK3β/Wnt/β-catenin signaling	Liu et al. (2018) 127
ANXA2P3	Knockdown	BA	Suppresses proliferation, increases apoptosis and induces cell cycle arrest in G1 phase in vitro by inhibiting ANXA2/ANXA2P3 signaling	Nuerzhati et al. (2019) 128
HK2P1	Knockdown	SPE	Inhibits glucose uptake, lactate production and decidualization in HESCs by releasing miR-6887-3p	Lv et al. (2018) 129
PTENP1	Overexpression	AD	Increases expression of PTEN to induce apoptosis and inhibit proliferation of HASMCs by sequestering miR-21 in vitro and in vivo	Lai et al. (2019) 134

Abbreviations: AD: aortic dissection; BA: biliary atresia; BC: breast cancer; CC: cervical cancer; ccRCC: clear cell renal cell carcinoma; CML: chronic myelocytic leukemia; CRC: colorectal cancer; DLBCL: diffuse large B cell lymphoma; EMT: epithelial to mesenchymal transition; ESCC: esophageal squamous cell carcinoma; GBM: glioblastoma; GC: gastric cancer; HASMC: human aortic smooth muscle cell; HCC: hepatocellular carcinoma; HESC: human endometrial stromal cell; HUVEC: human umbilical vein endothelial cell; LUAD: lung adenocarcinoma; NSCLC: non-small cell lung cancer; OSCC: oral squamous cell carcinoma; PDAC: pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma; PT: pituitary tumor; RCC: renal cell carcinoma; SPE: severe preeclampsia; TC: thyroid carcinoma.