TABLE 1.
Characteristics of mother–child pairs in Tianjin Study1
| Gestational weight gain | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Inadequate (n = 153) | Adequate (n = 370) | Excessive (n = 591) | P value2 | |
| Maternal characteristics | ||||
| Maternal age at pregnancy, y | 30.6 ± 3.4 | 30.4 ± 3.2 | 29.8 ± 3.3 | 0.002 |
| Gestational age at delivery, wk | 39.1 ± 1.4 | 39.1 ± 1.4 | 39.1 ± 1.5 | 0.75 |
| Prepregnancy BMI, kg/m2 | 21.2 ± 2.2 | 21.6 ± 2.5 | 22.7 ± 3.5 | <0.001 |
| Current smokers, n (%) | 5 (3.3) | 8 (2.2) | 18 (3.0) | 0.86 |
| Treatment of GDM | 0.055 | |||
| None | 86 (56.2) | 193 (52.2) | 348 (58.9) | |
| Insulin | 1 (0.7) | 9 (2.4) | 4 (0.7) | |
| Lifestyle control | 66 (43.1) | 168 (45.4) | 239 (40.4) | |
| Maternal education | 0.004 | |||
| Secondary school | 1 (0.7) | 7 (1.9) | 6 (1.0) | |
| Senior high school | 18 (11.8) | 36 (9.7) | 103 (17.4) | |
| Bachelor | 117 (76.5) | 276 (74.6) | 433 (73.3) | |
| Master | 17 (11.1) | 51 (13.8) | 49 (8.3) | |
| Family income, yuan/mo | 0.09 | |||
| <5000 | 27 (17.8) | 41 (11.4) | 100 (17.1) | |
| 5000–7999 | 32 (21.1) | 99 (27.4) | 151 (25.8) | |
| ≥8000 | 93 (61.2) | 221 (61.2) | 334 (57.1) | |
| History of GDM, n (%) | 77 (50.3) | 194 (52.4) | 289 (48.9) | 0.57 |
| Married, n (%) | 151 (98.7) | 368 (99.5) | 585 (99.0) | 0.63 |
| Single pregnancy, n (%) | 153 (100.0) | 367 (99.2) | 578 (97.8) | 0.06 |
| Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, n (%) | 3 (2.0) | 11 (3.0) | 32 (5.4) | 0.06 |
| Child characteristics | ||||
| Age, y | 5.9 ± 1.3 | 5.8 ± 1.2 | 5.9 ± 1.2 | 0.71 |
| Female, n (%) | 70 (45.8) | 182 (49.2) | 278 (47.0) | 0.72 |
| Birth weight, kg | 3.3 ± 0.4 | 3.4 ± 0.4 | 3.6 ± 0.5 | <0.001 |
| Feeding patterns, n (%) | 0.92 | |||
| Exclusive breast feeding | 65 (42.5) | 165 (44.6) | 251 (42.5) | |
| Mixed breast and formula feeding | 65 (42.5) | 156 (42.2) | 262 (44.4) | |
| Exclusive formula feeding | 23 (15.0) | 49 (13.2) | 77 (13.1) | |
| Lactation duration, mo | 4.1 ± 3.6 | 4.6 ± 3.6 | 4.4 ± 5.3 | 0.80 |
| Physical activity, h/d | 2.0 ± 0.8 | 2.2 ± 0.9 | 2.1 ± 0.9 | 0.42 |
| Vegetable intake frequency, n (%) | 0.38 | |||
| ≤1 time/d | 15 (9.8) | 24 (6.5) | 51 (8.6) | |
| 2 times/d | 131 (85.6) | 333 (90.0) | 508 (86.0) | |
| ≥3 times/d | 7 (4.6) | 13 (3.5) | 32 (5.4) | |
| Fruit intake frequency, n (%) | 0.83 | |||
| <1 time/d | 4 (2.6) | 13 (3.5) | 21 (3.6) | |
| 1 time/d | 49 (32.0) | 133 (35.9) | 214 (36.2) | |
| >3 times/d | 100 (65.4) | 224 (60.5) | 356 (60.2) | |
| Sleeping time, h (%) | 3.6 (1.0) | 3.6 (0.9) | 3.6 (1.0) | 0.76 |
| History of disease in recent 3 mo, n (%) | 61 (39.9) | 144 (38.9) | 209 (35.4) | 0.41 |
| Weight, kg | 20.9 ± 5.0 | 22.0 ± 6.4 | 23.5 ± 6.8 | <0.001 |
| Height, cm | 117.0 ± 9.0 | 117.5 ± 9.7 | 119.0 ± 9.6 | <0.001 |
| BMI, kg/m2 | 15.1 ± 1.9 | 15.7 ± 2.3 | 16.3 ± 2.6 | <0.001 |
| Body fat, % | 17.2 ± 6.3 | 19.3 ± 7.3 | 21.1 ± 8.2 | <0.001 |
| Waist circumference, cm | 53.7 ± 5.0 | 54.9 ± 6.0 | 56.4 ± 7.0 | <0.001 |
| BMI-for-age z-score | −0.3 ± 1.2 | 0.01 ± 1.2 | 0.4 ± 1.4 | <0.001 |
| Weight-for-age z-score | 0.07 ± 1.1 | 0.4 ± 1.1 | 0.8 ± 1.3 | <0.001 |
| Risk allele frequency (GG), % | 31.4 | 30.5 | 35.0 | 0.34 |
1Data are mean ± SD or n (%) as appropriate. GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus.
2 P values were calculated by chi-square test for categorical variables and general linear models for continuous variables after adjusting for children's age (except age, birth weight, and lactation duration) for children's characteristics, or maternal age (except maternal age) for maternal characteristics.