Figure 1.

Pathways by which WAT and BAT depots serve as major nodes of systemic metabolic regulation. Adipokines and batokines regulate hepatic lipogenesis and glucose output as well as glucose uptake and disposal by muscle. Secreted factors from adipocytes can also act in a paracrine fashion to regulate other cell types within adipose depots such as vascular cells and nerve fibers. BAT thermogenesis may contribute to systemic glucose disposal and oxidize lipids to lower systemic toxicity. WAT lipolysis in obesity can contribute to fatty acid and glycerol overload in the liver to enhance gluconeogenesis and glucose output. WAT-derived fatty acids also contribute to skeletal muscle insulin resistance (not shown). The combination of the actions of peptides, lipids, small RNA, and other factors from adipocytes plus the released lipolytic products (fatty acids and glycerol) have major influences on local cell types within adipose tissue as well as on distant tissues.