Table 2.
CES-D10 scores of the study population according to self-reported hearing and vision changes (2006–2008)
| Change of hearing | Change of vision | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variables | Good → good (n = 5.298) | Good → poor (n = 224) | Poor → good (n = 200) | Poor → poor (n = 110) | p-value | Good → good (n = 3.926) | Good → poor (n = 791) | Poor → good (n = 662) | Poor → poor (n = 453) | p-value |
| Sex | ||||||||||
| Male | 2.5 (±2.5) | 4.2 (±2.8) | 2.9 (±3.0) | 3.9 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 2.4 (±2.5) | 3.4 (±2.9) | 2.7 (±2.6) | 3.3 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Female | 3.1 (±2.7) | 4.9 (±2.9) | 4.1 (±3.2) | 4.8 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 2.9 (±2.6) | 4.1 (±2.9) | 3.0 (±2.8) | 4.3 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Age (years) | ||||||||||
| 45–64 | 2.6 (±2.5) | 3.3 (±2.4) | 2.2 (±2.5) | 1.2 (±1.7) | 0.016 | 2.5 (±2.4) | 3.2 (±2.7) | 2.5 (±2.5) | 2.8 (±2.8) | <0.001 |
| ⩾65 | 3.4 (±2.8) | 4.8 (±2.9) | 4.0 (±3.2) | 4.7 (±2.7) | <0.001 | 3.2 (±2.7) | 4.3 (±3.0) | 3.3 (±2.8) | 4.4 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Education (years) | ||||||||||
| >12 | 2.4 (±2.4) | 3.0 (±2.3) | 2.6 (±2.9) | 3.6 (±3.0) | 0.050 | 2.3 (±2.3) | 3.0 (±2.7) | 2.4 (±2.3) | 3.1 (±2.9) | <0.001 |
| 6–12 | 2.8 (±2.6) | 4.0 (±3.2) | 2.6 (±2.9) | 3.8 (±3.0) | 0.064 | 2.6 (±2.5) | 3.8 (±2.9) | 2.5 (±2.7) | 3.9 (±3.2) | <0.001 |
| ⩽6 | 3.4 (±2.8) | 5.2 (±2.8) | 4.1 (±3.2) | 4.4 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 3.3 (±2.8) | 4.4 (±3.0) | 3.3 (±2.8) | 4.2 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Marital status | ||||||||||
| Married | 2.7 (±2.6) | 4.2 (±2.8) | 2.9 (±3.0) | 3.7 (±2.7) | <0.001 | 2.6 (±2.5) | 3.5 (±2.8) | 2.7 (±2.6) | 3.6 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Divorced or widowed | 3.7 (±2.9) | 5.3 (±2.8) | 4.6 (±3.2) | 5.6 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 3.4 (±2.8) | 4.9 (±3.0) | 3.5 (±3.0) | 4.7 (±2.8) | <0.001 |
| Single | 2.8 (±2.8) | . | 7.5 (±0.7) | . | 0.026 | 2.9 (±2.9) | 3.0 (±4.2) | 5.7 (±3.2) | 1.5 (±0.7) | 0.419 |
| Economic activity | ||||||||||
| Employed | 2.4 (±2.4) | 4.1 (±2.5) | 2.3 (±2.7) | 3.1 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 2.3 (±2.3) | 2.9 (±2.6) | 2.4 (±2.3) | 3.0 (±2.7) | <0.001 |
| Unemployed | 3.3 (±2.8) | 4.7 (±3.0) | 4.0 (±3.2) | 4.6 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 3.1 (±2.7) | 4.3 (±3.0) | 3.2 (±2.9) | 4.3 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Household income | ||||||||||
| First quartile (high) | 2.4 (±2.4) | 4.3 (±3.1) | 3.1 (±2.8) | 5.1 (±3.0) | <0.001 | 2.3 (±2.3) | 3.6 (±2.9) | 2.4 (±2.4) | 2.9 (±2.8) | <0.001 |
| Second quartile | 2.8 (±2.6) | 4.3 (±2.6) | 2.9 (±3.0) | 3.2 (±2.9) | <0.001 | 2.7 (±2.5) | 3.4 (±2.8) | 2.7 (±2.6) | 3.8 (±2.9) | <0.001 |
| Third quartile | 3.4 (±2.8) | 4.7 (±2.8) | 4.2 (±3.4) | 4.2 (±2.6) | <0.001 | 3.2 (±2.7) | 4.3 (±3.0) | 3.6 (±2.8) | 4.1 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Fourth quartile (low) | 3.7 (±3.0) | 4.8 (±3.1) | 4.1 (±3.3) | 5.0 (±2.7) | 0.077 | 3.7 (±3.0) | 4.2 (±3.0) | 3.1 (±2.8) | 4.6 (±3.1) | 0.023 |
| Social isolation | ||||||||||
| Not isolated | 2.7 (±2.6) | 4.1 (±2.8) | 3.1 (±3.1) | 3.9 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 2.6 (±2.5) | 3.5 (±2.9) | 2.7 (±2.6) | 3.6 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Isolated | 4.1 (±2.8) | 6.4 (±2.3) | 5.3 (±3.0) | 5.2 (±2.7) | <0.001 | 3.8 (±2.6) | 5.6 (±2.7) | 4.2 (±2.8) | 5.5 (±2.9) | <0.001 |
| Regular exercise | ||||||||||
| 0/week | 3.1 (±2.7) | 5.1 (±2.8) | 3.9 (±3.3) | 4.5 (±2.9) | <0.001 | 2.9 (±2.7) | 4.3 (±3.0) | 3.1 (±2.8) | 4.3 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| 1–3/week | 2.3 (±2.2) | 3.5 (±2.8) | 2.0 (±2.2) | 3.5 (±2.5) | 0.031 | 2.1 (±2.1) | 2.8 (±2.6) | 2.6 (±2.3) | 3.0 (±2.9) | <0.001 |
| 4–7/week | 2.7 (±2.5) | 3.1 (±2.6) | 2.6 (±2.8) | 3.6 (±2.9) | 0.373 | 2.6 (±2.5) | 3.2 (±2.7) | 2.5 (±2.5) | 3.1 (±2.9) | 0.005 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | ||||||||||
| 18.5–23 | 2.9 (±2.6) | 4.7 (±3.0) | 3.7 (±3.1) | 4.5 (±2.6) | <0.001 | 2.7 (±2.5) | 4.1 (±3.0) | 2.9 (±2.7) | 3.9 (±2.9) | <0.001 |
| ⩾23 | 2.8 (±2.6) | 4.0 (±2.7) | 3.1 (±3.1) | 3.4 (±3.0) | <0.001 | 2.7 (±2.5) | 3.5 (±2.9) | 2.8 (±2.6) | 3.7 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| ⩽18.5 | 3.4 (±2.8) | 5.9 (±2.3) | 4.3 (±3.6) | 5.1 (±3.2) | <0.001 | 3.3 (±2.8) | 4.8 (±3.1) | 3.1 (±2.6) | 4.6 (±3.1) | 0.013 |
| Smoking status | ||||||||||
| Never | 2.9 (±2.7) | 4.7 (±2.9) | 3.7 (±3.2) | 4.7 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 2.8 (±2.6) | 4.0 (±2.9) | 2.9 (±2.7) | 3.9 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Former smoker | 2.7 (±2.6) | 4.4 (±2.8) | 2.8 (±2.9) | 3.6 (±2.9) | 0.001 | 2.5 (±2.4) | 3.8 (±3.0) | 2.8 (±2.6) | 3.7 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Current smoker | 2.6 (±2.6) | 4.1 (±2.7) | 3.3 (±3.3) | 3.4 (±2.7) | <0.001 | 2.5 (±2.5) | 3.0 (±2.8) | 2.8 (±2.6) | 3.9 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Alcohol use | ||||||||||
| Never | 3.1 (±2.7) | 4.6 (±2.9) | 4.0 (±3.2) | 4.6 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 3.0 (±2.7) | 4.2 (±3.0) | 2.9 (±2.7) | 4.1 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Former user | 3.1 (±2.8) | 5.0 (±2.9) | 4.5 (±3.3) | 4.1 (±2.7) | <0.001 | 2.8 (±2.6) | 4.5 (±2.8) | 3.7 (±3.1) | 4.8 (±2.9) | <0.001 |
| Current user | 2.4 (±2.4) | 4.2 (±2.8) | 2.3 (±2.7) | 3.9 (±3.0) | <0.001 | 2.4 (±2.4) | 3.0 (±2.6) | 2.6 (±2.6) | 3.0 (±2.8) | <0.001 |
| Hypertension | ||||||||||
| Yes | 3.2 (±2.8) | 4.8 (±2.9) | 4.1 (±3.4) | 4.4 (±2.9) | <0.001 | 3.0 (±2.7) | 4.5 (±3.0) | 3.0 (±2.8) | 4.1 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| No | 2.7 (±2.6) | 4.4 (±2.8) | 3.0 (±3.0) | 4.2 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 2.6 (±2.5) | 3.5 (±2.8) | 2.8 (±2.6) | 3.7 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Diabetes | ||||||||||
| Yes | 3.5 (±2.8) | 4.8 (±2.8) | 4.2 (±3.1) | 4.7 (±2.7) | 0.007 | 3.2 (±2.7) | 4.7 (±3.1) | 3.1 (±2.8) | 4.3 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| No | 2.8 (±2.6) | 4.5 (±2.9) | 3.4 (±3.2) | 4.2 (±2.9) | <0.001 | 2.6 (±2.5) | 3.6 (±2.9) | 2.8 (±2.7) | 3.8 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | ||||||||||
| Yes | 4.4 (±3.0) | 5.4 (±2.9) | 6.1 (±3.8) | 5.8 (±3.3) | 0.182 | 4.1 (±2.8) | 5.7 (±3.1) | 3.8 (±3.4) | 6.0 (±3.3) | 0.010 |
| No | 2.8 (±2.6) | 4.5 (±2.9) | 3.3 (±3.0) | 4.2 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 2.7 (±2.5) | 3.7 (±2.9) | 2.9 (±2.7) | 3.8 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Cancer | ||||||||||
| Yes | 3.8 (±2.9) | 7.0 (±2.2) | 5.1 (±3.2) | 5.3 (±2.7) | 0.052 | 3.4 (±2.8) | 5.5 (±2.7) | 3.9 (±2.7) | 5.5 (±3.1) | 0.003 |
| No | 2.8 (±2.6) | 4.5 (±2.9) | 3.4 (±3.1) | 4.2 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 2.7 (±2.5) | 3.8 (±2.9) | 2.8 (±2.7) | 3.8 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Arthritis | ||||||||||
| Yes | 3.8 (±2.8) | 5.1 (±2.9) | 4.3 (±3.4) | 4.5 (±2.8) | 0.003 | 3.4 (±2.8) | 4.5 (±2.9) | 3.8 (±2.9) | 4.8 (±2.7) | <0.001 |
| No | 2.7 (±2.6) | 4.3 (±2.8) | 3.2 (±3.1) | 4.2 (±2.9) | <0.001 | 2.6 (±2.5) | 3.6 (±2.9) | 2.7 (±2.6) | 3.5 (±3.1) | <0.001 |
| Hearing aid use | ||||||||||
| Yes | 2.5 (±2.4) | 3.4 (±2.6) | 2.5 (±2.7) | 3.1 (±2.8) | 0.001 | 2.5 (±2.4) | 2.8 (±2.5) | 2.4 (±2.4) | 2.8 (±2.6) | 0.016 |
| No | 4.4 (±2.9) | 5.4 (±2.8) | 5.2 (±3.1) | 5.1 (±2.6) | <0.001 | 4.0 (±2.8) | 5.4 (±2.9) | 4.5 (±2.9) | 5.0 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Spectacles use | ||||||||||
| Yes | 3.2 (±3.0) | 4.6 (±3.2) | 3.8 (±2.8) | 5.1 (±2.4) | 0.088 | 3.4 (±2.8) | 3.8 (±3.5) | 3.4 (±2.8) | 4.7 (±3.1) | 0.422 |
| No | 2.8 (±2.6) | 4.5 (±2.8) | 3.4 (±3.2) | 4.1 (±2.9) | <0.001 | 2.7 (±2.5) | 3.8 (±2.9) | 2.9 (±2.7) | 3.8 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Self-rated health | ||||||||||
| Good | 2.9 (±2.7) | 4.5 (±3.1) | 3.9 (±3.3) | 4.6 (±3.0) | <0.001 | 2.7 (±2.5) | 3.9 (±3.1) | 2.7 (±2.6) | 3.4 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| Poor | 2.8 (±2.6) | 4.5 (±2.8) | 3.3 (±3.1) | 4.1 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 2.7 (±2.6) | 3.8 (±2.9) | 2.9 (±2.7) | 4.2 (±3.0) | <0.001 |
| MMSE | ||||||||||
| Normal | 2.5 (±2.4) | 3.7 (±2.6) | 2.4 (±2.6) | 3.1 (±2.8) | <0.001 | 2.4 (±2.4) | 3.0 (±2.6) | 2.6 (±2.5) | 3.3 (±2.9) | <0.001 |
| Mild cognitive impairment | 3.9 (±2.9) | 5.0 (±2.8) | 4.9 (±3.2) | 4.3 (±2.1) | 0.016 | 3.9 (±2.9) | 5.0 (±2.8) | 3.1 (±2.9) | 4.4 (±2.9) | <0.001 |
| Moderate-to-severe cognitive impairment | 5.2 (±3.1) | 6.3 (±2.6) | 5.6 (±3.1) | 5.8 (±2.8) | 0.089 | 5.4 (±3.0) | 6.2 (±2.8) | 5.0 (±3.2) | 5.3 (±3.0) | 0.015 |
BMI, body mass index; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; s.d., standard deviation.