Table 3.
Results of generalised estimating equation for changes of hearing, vision and other covariates
| CES-D10 scores | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Variables | β | s.e. | p-value |
| Change of hearing | |||
| Good → good | Ref. | ||
| Good → poor | 0.434 | 0.097 | <0.001 |
| Poor → good | 0.069 | 0.106 | 0.513 |
| Poor → poor | 0.132 | 0.169 | 0.435 |
| Hearing aid user | 0.109 | 0.146 | 0.453 |
| Change of vision | |||
| Good → good | Ref. | ||
| Good → poor | 0.253 | 0.058 | <0.001 |
| Poor → good | −0.022 | 0.057 | 0.700 |
| Poor → poor | 0.295 | 0.082 | <0.001 |
| Spectacles user | −0.077 | 0.049 | 0.114 |
| Time (every 2 years) | −0.145 | 0.015 | <0.001 |
| Sex | |||
| Male | Ref. | ||
| Female | 0.005 | 0.077 | 0.950 |
| Age (years) | |||
| 45–64 | Ref. | ||
| ⩾65 | −0.004 | 0.056 | 0.940 |
| Education (years) | |||
| >12 | Ref. | ||
| 6–12 | 0.124 | 0.072 | 0.086 |
| ⩽6 | 0.138 | 0.067 | 0.039 |
| Marital status | |||
| Married | Ref. | ||
| Divorced or widowed | 0.416 | 0.077 | <0.001 |
| Single | 0.336 | 0.489 | 0.492 |
| Economic activity | |||
| Employed | Ref. | ||
| Unemployed | 0.415 | 0.049 | <0.001 |
| Household income | |||
| First quartile (high) | Ref. | ||
| Second quartile | 0.115 | 0.049 | 0.019 |
| Third quartile | 0.301 | 0.065 | <0.001 |
| Fourth quartile (low) | 0.135 | 0.101 | 0.180 |
| Social isolation | |||
| Not isolated | Ref. | ||
| Isolated | 1.110 | 0.069 | <0.001 |
| Regular exercise | |||
| 0/week | Ref. | ||
| 1–3/week | −0.294 | 0.052 | <0.001 |
| 4–7/week | −0.208 | 0.047 | <0.001 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | |||
| 18.5–23 | Ref. | ||
| ⩾23 | −0.085 | 0.044 | 0.057 |
| ⩽18.5 | 0.111 | 0.114 | 0.330 |
| Smoking status | |||
| Never | Ref. | ||
| Former smoker | 0.075 | 0.082 | 0.360 |
| Current smoker | 0.032 | 0.081 | 0.697 |
| Alcohol use | |||
| Never | Ref. | ||
| Former user | 0.319 | 0.087 | <0.001 |
| Current user | −0.096 | 0.061 | 0.113 |
| Hypertension | −0.013 | 0.054 | 0.808 |
| Diabetes | 0.081 | 0.071 | 0.258 |
| Cerebrovascular disease | 0.590 | 0.126 | <0.001 |
| Cancer | 0.419 | 0.112 | <0.001 |
| Chronic lung disease | 0.091 | 0.172 | 0.599 |
| Arthritis | 0.190 | 0.070 | 0.006 |
| Self-rated health | |||
| Good | Ref. | ||
| Poor | 0.487 | 0.043 | <0.001 |
| MMSE | |||
| Normal | Ref. | ||
| Mild cognitive impairment | 0.642 | 0.061 | <0.001 |
| Moderate-to-severe cognitive impairment | 1.080 | 0.100 | <0.001 |
BMI, body mass index; MMSE, Mini-Mental State Examination; CES-D10, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale – ten items; β, estimated coefficient; s.e., standard error; Ref., reference.
The effects of change in hearing or vision on depressive symptoms were analysed after adjustment for demographic, socioeconomic and health-related factors as potential confounders.