Table 1.

Characterization of motility systems

Type	Name	Variations	Representatives	Key proteins	Energy source	Distribution	Year	References
1	Bacterial flagella swimming Spirochetes swimming	Typical flagella	(a) Escherichia coli	FliC, FliG, MotA, MotB	Proton motive force	Widespread in Bacteria	1974	Berg (1974), Larsen et al. (1974), Silverman and Simon (1974)
		Periplasmic flagella	(b) Borrelia burgdorferi, Leptospira interrogans	FlaB, FliG, MotA, MotB		Phylum Spirochaetes	1979	Li et al. (2000), Charon and Goldstein (2002), Charon et al. (2012), Takabe et al. (2017)
		Magnetotactic behavior	(c) Magnetospirillum magneticum AMB−1	FliC, FliG, MotA, MotB		Widespread in Bacteria	1975	Blakemore (1975), Blakemore, Maratea, and Wolfe (1979), Uebe and Schuler (2016)
		Swarming motility	(d) Proteus mirabilis, Vibrio parahaemolyticus (lateral flagella)	FliC, FliG, FliL, MotA, MotB		Widespread in Bacteria	1885	Henrichsen (1972)
		Crawling motility	(e) Leptospira interrogans	FlaB, FliG, MotA, MotB		Leptospira	1974	Cox and Twigg (1974), Tahara et al. (2018)
2	Bacterial pili motility		Pseudomonas aeruginosae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Myxococcus xanthus S motility Synechocystis sp. PCC6803	PilA, PilB, PilT	ATP	Widespread in Bacteria	1961	Lautrop (1961), Bradley (1972)
3	Myxococcus A motility		Myxococcus xanthus	AglRQS, GltA‐K	Proton motive force	Class Gammaproteobacteria		Nan et al. (2014), Agrebi et al. (2015), Mercier and Mignot (2016)
4	Bacterial gliding		Flavobacterium johnsoniae	SprB, GldBD, GldH‐N	Proton motive force	Phylum Bacteroidetes	1972	Pate and Chang (1979), Lapidus and Berg (1982), McBride and Nakane (2015)
5	Bacterial gliding		Chloroflexus aurantiacus, Chloroflexus aggregans	Unknown	Unknown	Phylum Chloroflexi	1995	Hanada, Hiraishi, Shimada, and Matsuura (1995), Hanada et al. (2002), Fukushima et al. (2016)
6	Bacterial swimming		Synechococcus	SwmA, SwmB	Unknown	Synechococcus	1985	Waterbury et al. (1985); Brahamsha (1999)
7	Archaella		Halobacterium salinarum	FlaH, FlaI, FlaJ	ATP	Phylum Euryarchaeota, Phylum Crenarchaeota	1984	Alam and Oesterhelt (1984), Jarrell and Albers (2012), Albers and Jarrell (2015), Chaudhury et al. (2016)
8	Actin polymerization‐based motility	(a) Amoeba motility driven by polymerization of actin filaments in pseudopods	Fish keratocytes, Leukocytes, Dictyostelium discoideum	Eukaryotic actin	ATP	Widespread in Animalia, Protist, Fungi	1993 (lamellipodia)	Tilney and Portnoy (1989), Theriot and Mitchison (1991), Small, Rohlfs, and Herzog (1993)
		(b) Comet tail motility of intracellular parasitic bacteria and virus	Listeria monocytogenes, Baculovirus			Bacteria, Virus	1989	Tilney and Portnoy (1989), Haglund and Welch (2011)
9	Microtubule depolymerization‐based motility		Actinosphaerium nucleofilum, Actinocoryne contractilis, Echinosphaerium nucleofilum, Stentor polymorphus, Stentor coeruleus, Spirostomum ambiguum	Tubulin	Ca2+ binding	Order Heliozoa, Class Heterotrichea	1965 1958	Randall and Jackson (1958), Tilney and Porter (1965), Ettienne (1970), Huang and Pitelka (1973), Suzaki et al. (1980), Febvre‐Chevalier and Febvre (1992)
10	Myosin sliding‐based motility	(a) Amoeboid motility driven by hydrostatic pressure	Metastatic cancer cells, Amoeba proteus, Physarum polycephalum, Dictyostelium discoideum	Actin and myosin II	ATP	Widespread in Animalia, Protist, Fungi	1984 (contraction of the rear of amoeboid cells)	Yumura, Mori, and Fukui (1984), Bray and White (1988)
		(b) Muscle contraction	Striated muscle, Jelly fish	Actin and myosin II	ATP	Widespread in Animalia	1954 (striated muscle)	Szent‐Györgyi (1947), Huxley and Niedergerke (1954), Huxley and Hanson (1954), Seipel and Schmid (2005)
		(c) Various motilities driven by unconventional myosin moving along actin filaments	Toxoplasma gondii, Bacillaria paxillifer	Actin and unconventional myosin	ATP	Sporadic in Protist		Meissner, Schluter, and Soldati (2002), Yamaoka, Suetomo, Yoshihisa, and Sonobe (2016)
11	Kinesin sliding‐based motility	Vesicle transport (not motility)	Wide range of eukaryotes	Kinesin, Tubulin	ATP	Widespread in eukaryotes	1985	Bloodgood, Leffler, and Bojczuk (1979), Vale, Reese, and Sheetz (1985), Shih et al. (2013)
		(a) Flagellar surface motility	Chlamydomonas reinhardtii			Protist, Animalia	1979	Bloodgood et al. (1979), Shih et al. (2013)
12	Dynein sliding‐based motility	(b) Eukaryotic ciliary and flagellar swimming	Wide range of eukaryotes other than Plantae	Dynein, Tubulin	ATP	Widespread in eukaryotes other than Plantae	1972	Gibbons and Gibbons (1972), Gibbons and Fronk (1972), Iyer et al. (2004), Shih et al. (2013)
		(a) Flagellar surface motility	Chlamydomonas reinhardtii					Bloodgood et al. (1979), Shih et al. (2013)
13	Haptonema coiling		Chrysochromulina acantha, Chrysochromulina simplex, Chrysochromulina hirta	Tubulin	Ca2+ binding	Class Haptophyceae	1955	Parke et al. (1955), Greyson et al. (1993), Kawachi and Inouye (1994)
14	Spasmoneme coiling		Vorticella convallaria, Zoothamnium geniculatum, Carchesium polypinum	Spasmin	Ca2+ binding	Subclass Peritrichia	1958	Hoffman‐Berling (1958), Amos et al. (1975)
15	Amoeboid motility of nematode sperm		Caenorhabditis elegans, Ascaris suum	Major sperm protein (MSP)	ATP	Phylum Nematoda	1979	Roberts and Stewart (1997)
16	Mycoplasma gliding		Mycoplasma mobile	Gli349, Gli521	ATP	Class Mollicutes	1977	Miyata (2010), Miyata and Hamaguchi (2016b)
17	Mycoplasma gliding		Mycoplasma pneumoniae	P1 adhesin, HMW2	ATP	Class Mollicutes	1968	Bredt (1968), Miyata and Hamaguchi (2016a), Mizutani and Miyata (2019)
18	Spiroplasma swimming		Spiroplasma melliferum	Fib, MreB	Unknown	Class Mollicutes	1973	Wada and Netz (2009), Liu et al. (2017)
Motility not driven by dedicated motor system
(i)	Sliding motility		Bacillus subtilis	Surfactin	Surface tension	Phylum Firmicutes, Phylum Actinobacteria	1972	Martinez, Torello, and Kolter (1999)
(ii)	Gas vesicle floating		Halobacterium salinarum, Anabaena flos‐aquae, Serratia sp.	GvpA	Buoyant force	Photosynthetic bacteria, Haloarchaea, Heterotrophic bacteria	1895	Pfeifer (2012), Tashiro et al. (2016)
(iii)	Plant seed flying		Dandelion, maple	NA	Air flow	Widespread in higher plants	NA