Table 5.

Animal management and husbandry procedures reducing the need for antimicrobial use

Primary prevention (to reduce the introduction and spread of microorganisms between farms)
External biosecurity, including introduction of animals	Routine cleaning and disinfection of facilities between batches of animals
	Disinfection of vehicles for transport
	Reduced mixing of animals from different batches
	Isolation of sick or diseased animals and cleaning operator clothes and boots
	Movement restrictions following outbreaks
	Avoiding distribution hubs for live animals
	Understanding of health status of farms from which animals are being purchased or of neighbouring farms
	Control of surface waters, enrichment materials and feed from other farms
	Housing design to minimise entry of pathogens (doors and walls to prevent access of wild and pest animals, barriers for human access, facilities for human hygiene, air filters)
Compartmentalisation (including internal trading, SPF systems)	SPF concept could be more widely adopted
Eradication	Eradication of specific diseases and endemic pathogens by all‐in all‐out (poultry), stamping out and medication combined with vaccination, DIVA tests and/or selective removal of individual infected carrier animals
Secondary prevention (to reduce transmission or spread within a farm)
Internal biosecurity	On‐farm risk assessment to identify areas for focused action
	Diagnostic test strategies to focus antimicrobial use and support management strategies
	Segregation
	Reducing stocking density
Production groupings	All‐in‐all‐out methods, batching by age, multisite production
Housing design, building and maintenance	Reducing the contact between animals and slurry, waste water or faeces
	Use of a proper ventilation system
	Routine cleaning of housing
	Include sick pens
	Reducing production of ammonia by maintaining dry litter and removal of pollutant gases
Tertiary prevention (to increase the ability of animals to cope with these pathogens)
Vaccination	Need to improve vaccines for bacterial conditions
	For pigs, vaccines for post‐weaning diarrhoea, porcine respiratory disease complex and Streptococcus suis are needed
	For poultry, E. coli is the main bacterial organism of concern
	For bovines, vaccines for mastitis, viral diseases in veal production, Mycoplasma bovis are needed
Animal genetics	Genetic selection to improve both the innate and adaptive immune competence
Reducing the level of stress	Ensuring thermal comfort
	Reducing stocking density
	Reducing mixing of unfamiliar animals
	Ensure proper weaning
	Avoid feed restrictions
	Ensure proper animal handling
	Ensure proper enrichment
	Ensure proper conditions during transport (provision of feed and water, climatic conditions, avoid mixing and crowding)
Nutrition	Promoting proper nutritional measures, e.g. transition period, weaning of piglets, feed additives for microbiota composition
Herd (flock) health plans
Professional input into on‐farm animal health management, e.g. use of herd (flock) health plans
Review and revision of health plans on a regular basis to ensure that they are ‘living documents’ and are of active management value to the producer rather than ‘audit requirements’
Additional considerations on husbandry and management procedures
Rethinking of the livestock production systems	Review farming systems with heavy antimicrobial use to determine whether/how such systems could sustainably reduce the use of on‐farm antimicrobials
Potential of alternative farming principles	Some regulated production systems are able to operate with low antimicrobial use, and the farming practices which facilitate this should be further evaluated. Any associated animal health and welfare risks due to, e.g. higher risk for bacterial/parasitical/viral exposure also need to be considered
Raising awareness of AMR issues	Increasing producer awareness of ‘general’ AMR issues (public and animal health threats) and encouraging best practices among farmers
	Raising education on factors influencing disease occurrence