Figure 1.

Surgical approaches for intravital microscopy of the beating mouse heart. (A) The cervical explanted heart model provides the benefits of studying cardiac graft vs. host interaction [image adapted from Li et al. (66) with permission]. (B) Endoscopic, suction-stabilized imaging provides a less invasive approach and enables time-lapse imaging that reduces motion and appears to leave major histocompatibility complex class-II (MHC-II) + immune cell numbers unchanged [image reproduced from Jung et al. (33) with permission]. (C) Intrathoracic approaches enable a wider field of view of the freely beating heart in mechanically ventilated animals. Optical access to the heart is gained by a left thoracotomy in the anesthetized mouse. (D) Passive tissue stabilization is achieved by a 3D printed stainless steel probe (left) with a coverglass and reservoir for water immersion of the microscope objective. Tissue adhesive is applied to the underside of the stabilization probe prior to attachment to the left ventricle. Photographs show the probe attached to the heart (top right) and a view of the heart surface with visible coronary vessels in the window (bottom right). Image adapted from Jones et al. (78).