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. 2020 Jan 8;17(2):427. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17020427

Table 2.

Factors associated with leptospirosis among 394 urban service workers in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah.

Associated Factor Leptospirae Positive (N = 37) Leptospirae Negative (N = 357) Crude OR (95% CI) p-Value
No. (%) No. (%)
Age 47.8 (7.8) a 42.1 (9.6) a 5.71 (2.93, 8.49) b 0.001
Gender
 Male 29 (9.3) 284 (90.7) 0.93 (0.41, 2.12) 0.867
 Female c 8 (9.9) 25 (90.1)
Ethnicity
 KDM 20 (9.5) 190 (90.5) 1.03 (0.52, 2.04) 0.923
 Non-KDM c 17 (9.2) 167 (90.8)
Marital status
 Married 29 (9.1) 290 (90.9) 0.84 (0.37, 1.91) 0.674
 Single/widower c 8 (10.7) 67 (89.3)
Household number
 >3 14 (8.0) 160 (92.0) 0.75 (0.37, 1.50) 0.417
 ≤3 c 23 (10.5) 197 (89.5)
Level of academic achievement
 <Secondary school 12 (12.5) 84 (87.5) 1.56 (0.75, 3.24) 0.233
 ≥Secondary school c 25 (8.4) 273 (91.6)
Monthly salary (RM) 1876.1 (612.9) a 1651.0 (611.7) a 225.1 (11.81, 438.45) b 0.039
Occupational Factors
Duration of employment 19.7 (11.6) a 14.4 (11.3) a 5.29 (1.25, 9.33) b 0.011
Job category
Garbage collector
 Yes 9 (6.2) 31 (93.8) 1.92 (0.88, 4.18) 0.103
 No c 28 (11.2) 221 (88.8)
Town sweeper
 Yes 15 (15.5) 82 (84.5)
 No c 22 (7.4) 275 (92.6) 2.29 (1.13, 4.61) 0.021
Landscaper
 Yes 8 (8.1) 91 (91.9)
 No c 29 (9.8) 266 (90.2) 0.81 (0.36, 1.83) 0.606
Lorry driver
 Yes 5 (9.4) 48 (90.6)
 No c 32 (9.4) 309 (90.6) 1.01 (0.37, 2.71) 0.991
Working shift category
 Night shift 4 (7.5) 49 (92.5) 0.76 (0.26, 2.25) 0.802 d
 Daytime shift 33 (9.7) 308 (90.3)
Working while having a body wound
 Yes 13 (7.6) 157 (92.4) 0.69 (0.34, 1.40) 0.303
 No c 24 (10.7) 200 (89.3)
Practising hand washing with soap at work
 No 7 (13.2) 46 (86.8) 1.58 (0.65, 3.80) 0.309
 Yes c 30 (8.8) 311 (91.2)
Taking a shower before going home
 No 31 (9.3) 302 (90.7) 0.94 (0.38, 2.36) 0.897
 Yes c 6 (9.8) 55 (90.2)
Having food or drink while performing the job
 Yes 10 (8.3) 111 (91.7) 0.82 (0.38, 1.75) 0.61
 No c 27 (9.9) 246 (90.1)
Having cigarettes while performing the job
 Yes 6 (8.7) 63 (91.3) 0.90 (0.36, 2.26) 0.828
 No c 31 (9.5) 294 (90.5)
Animal contact in the workplace
 Yes 8 (12.3) 57 (87.7) 1.45 (0.63, 3.34) 0.38
 No c 29 (8.8) 300 (91.2)
Encountering rats or rodents in the workplace
 Yes 34 (9.8) 312 (90.2) 1.64 (0.48, 5.54) 0.599 d
 No 3 (6.3) 45 (93.8)
Personal protective equipment (PPE) usage at work
 No 3 (5.8) 49 (94.2) 0.56 (0.16, 1.88) 0.449 d
 Yes 34 (9.9) 308 (90.1)
Environmental Factors
House status
 Rented 14 (9.9) 127 (90.1) 1.10 (0.55, 2.22) 0.785
 Owned c 23 (9.1) 230 (90.9)
House type
 Wooden 18 (7.9) 211 (92.1) 0.66 (0.33, 1.29) 0.222
 Brick c 19 (11.5) 146 (88.5)
Water source
 Non-JBA 7 (10.1) 62 (89.9) 1.11 (0.47, 2.64) 0.813
 JBA c 30 (9.2) 295 (90.8)
Toilet type
 Pit 3 (4.7) 61 (95.3) 0.43 (0.13, 1.44) 0.239 d
 Flush 34 (10.3) 296 (89.7)
River near the house
 Yes 24 (9.7) 224 (90.3) 1.10 (0.54, 2.23) 0.799
 No c 13 (8.9) 133 (91.1)
Paddy field near the house
 Yes 6 (8.7) 63 (91.3) 0.90 (0.36, 2.26) 0.828
 No c 31 (9.5) 294 (90.5)
Household animal ownership
 Yes 18 (7.8) 212 (92.2) 0.65 (0.33, 1.28) 0.21
 No c 19 (11.6) 145 (88.4)
Neighbours’ animal ownership
 Yes 25 (8.6) 267 (91.4) 0.70 (0.34, 1.46) 0.324
 No c 12 (11.8) 90 (88.2)
Presence of rats in the house
 Yes 17 (8.6) 180 (91.4) 0.84 (0.42, 1.65) 0.605
 No c 20 (10.2) 177 (89.9)
Household area affected by flooding
 Yes 2 (7.7) 24 (92.3) 0.79 (0.18, 3.50) 1.000 d
 No 35 (9.5) 333 (90.5)
Accumulated garbage near the house
 Yes 12 (9.7) 112 (90.3) 1.05 (0.51, 2.17) 0.895
 No c 25 (9.3) 245 (90.7)
Garbage disposal
 Non-public service 9 (7.3) 115 (92.7) 0.68 (0.31, 1.48) 0.328
 Public service c 28 (10.4) 242 (89.6)
Recreational activities
Swimming in rivers
 Yes 2 (14.3) 12 (85.7) 1.64 (0.35, 7.64) 0.631 d
 No 35 (9.2) 345 (90.8)
Gardening
 Yes 16 (11.8) 120 (88.2) 1.51 (0.76, 2.99) 0.243
 No c 21 (8.1) 237 (91.9)
Fishing
 Yes 4 (4.2) 91 (95.8) 0.35 (0.12, 1.03) 0.067 d
 No 33 (11.0) 266 (89.0)

a Mean (SD), b mean difference (95% CI), c reference group, d Fisher’s exact test. OR = odds ratio, CI = confidence interval, KDM = Kadazan-Dusun-Murut, RM = Ringgit Malaysia, JBA = Jabatan Bekalan Air.