Table 1.
Cytoprotective, Antiapoptotic and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of C-Peptide | ↑ 5rc-kinase ↑ Pl-3 kinase ↑Erk-1/-2 |
↑ VSMC proliferation | ↑ vascular damage | |
↑Pl-3 | ↑ Chemotaxis of leukocytes | |||
↓ ROS ↓ NF-kβ |
↓ proliferation and migration of VSMC | ↓ Vascular damage | ||
↓ IL-8 ↓ MCP-1 |
↓ leukocyte adhesion and migration into the vascular wall | |||
↓ P-selectin ↓ ICAM-1 ↓ VCAM-1 |
↓ Leukocyte endothelium interaction | |||
↑ Bcl-2 ↓ Caspase-3 |
↓ Apoptosis | |||
Effects of C-Peptide on the Renal Function | NF-kβ PPARΥ |
Transcriptional effects | ↑ IGF-1 ↓ TNFα ↓ TGFβ |
Improved renal structure ↓ Apoptosis ↓ Mesangial expansion |
↓ Na+ ATPase ↓ K+ ATPase |
↓ Na+ excretion ↑ Energy status |
Improved renal structure Improved glomerular function ↓ Apoptosis ↓ Mesangial expansion ↓ Glomerular hyperfiltration ↓ Albumin excretion ↑ RBC deformability |
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↓ eNOS | ↑ Endothelial function | Improved glomerular function ↓ Glomerular hyperfiltration ↓ Albumin excretion ↑ RBC deformability |
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Effects of C-Peptide on Diabetic Neuropathy | c-fos c-jun |
↑ Neurotropic factors | ↑ NGF ↑ IGF-1 ↑ NT3 |
Improved nerve structures |
↑ eNOS | ↑ Na+ ATPase ↑ K+ ATPase ↑ Endothelial function ↑ Nerve blood flow |
Improved nerve function | ||
↑ Na+ ATPase ↑ K+ ATPase |
↓ Na+ retention ↑ Energy status |