Table 1.

Effects of C-peptide on cytoprotecting (against cell apoptosis and inflammation), on the renal function and on diabetic neuropathy (adapted from [40]).

Cytoprotective, Antiapoptotic and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of C-Peptide	↑ 5rc-kinase ↑ Pl-3 kinase ↑Erk-1/-2	↑ VSMC proliferation		↑ vascular damage
	↑Pl-3	↑ Chemotaxis of leukocytes
	↓ ROS ↓ NF-kβ	↓ proliferation and migration of VSMC		↓ Vascular damage
		↓ IL-8 ↓ MCP-1	↓ leukocyte adhesion and migration into the vascular wall
		↓ P-selectin ↓ ICAM-1 ↓ VCAM-1	↓ Leukocyte endothelium interaction
		↑ Bcl-2 ↓ Caspase-3		↓ Apoptosis
Effects of C-Peptide on the Renal Function	NF-kβ PPARΥ	Transcriptional effects	↑ IGF-1 ↓ TNFα ↓ TGFβ	Improved renal structure ↓ Apoptosis ↓ Mesangial expansion
	↓ Na+ ATPase ↓ K+ ATPase	↓ Na+ excretion ↑ Energy status		Improved renal structure Improved glomerular function ↓ Apoptosis ↓ Mesangial expansion ↓ Glomerular hyperfiltration ↓ Albumin excretion ↑ RBC deformability
	↓ eNOS	↑ Endothelial function		Improved glomerular function ↓ Glomerular hyperfiltration ↓ Albumin excretion ↑ RBC deformability
Effects of C-Peptide on Diabetic Neuropathy	c-fos c-jun	↑ Neurotropic factors	↑ NGF ↑ IGF-1 ↑ NT3	Improved nerve structures
	↑ eNOS	↑ Na+ ATPase ↑ K+ ATPase ↑ Endothelial function ↑ Nerve blood flow	Improved nerve function
	↑ Na+ ATPase ↑ K+ ATPase	↓ Na+ retention ↑ Energy status