Table 1.

Summary of evidence of environmental chemicals and their effect on epigenetic regulation.

Environmental chemicals	Experimental evidence			Observational evidence		Epigenetic impact	References
	Human	Animal	In vitro	Human	Animal
Organic pollutants
2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin	—	+	+	—	—	DNA methylation	Bastos Sales et al. 2013; Ding et al. 2018
Benzene	—	+	+	+	—	DNA methylation	Bollati et al. 2007; Coulter et al. 2013; Fustinoni et al. 2012; Hu et al. 2014; Ji et al. 2010; Li et al. 2017; Seow et al. 2012; Yang et al. 2014
						Histone marks	J Li et al. 2018
						Noncoding RNA	Bai et al. 2014a; Yang Liu et al. 2016; Wei et al. 2015
BPA	—	+	+	+	—	DNA methylation	Anderson et al. 2012, 2017; Bansal et al. 2017; Basak et al. 2018; Bastos Sales et al. 2013; Bromer et al. 2010; Cheong et al. 2018; Dolinoy et al. 2007; Doshi et al. 2011, 2012; Drobná et al. 2018; González-Rojo et al. 2019; Goodrich et al. 2016; Ho et al. 2006; Itoh et al. 2012; Jadhav et al. 2017; Jorgensen et al. 2016; Kitraki et al. 2015; Kumar and Thakur 2017; Kundakovic et al. 2013; Laing et al. 2016; Lee et al. 2018; G Li et al. 2014; Y Li et al. 2018; Yan Liu et al. 2016; Mao et al. 2015; Miao et al. 2014; Novo et al. 2018; Patel et al. 2013; Prins et al. 2008; Senyildiz et al. 2017; Susiarjo et al. 2013; Tang et al. 2012; Taylor et al. 2018; T Wang et al. 2016; Weinhouse et al. 2015; Ye et al. 2019
						Histone marks	Doherty et al. 2010; González-Rojo et al. 2019; Ho et al. 2015; Hussain et al. 2015; Jiang et al. 2016; Kumar and Thakur 2017; Lee et al. 2018; Y Li et al. 2018; Lombó et al. 2019; Perrot-Applanat et al. 2018; Santangeli et al. 2016; Senyildiz et al. 2017; Verbanck et al. 2017; Q Wang et al. 2016; T Wang et al. 2016
						Noncoding RNAs	Bhan et al. 2014; Chou et al. 2017; Ho et al. 2015; Kumamoto and Oshio 2013; Perrot-Applanat et al. 2018; Renaud et al. 2017
BPA substitutes (bisphenol AF, F, and S)	—	+	+	—	—	DNA methylation	Huang et al. 2019
						Histone marks	Ding et al. 2017
						Noncoding RNAs	Verbanck et al. 2017
Endosulfan	—	+	—	—	—	DNA methylation	Milesi et al. 2017
Glyphosate	—	+	—	—	—	DNA methylation	Smith et al. 2019
Hexachlorobenzene	—	—	+	—	—	DNA methylation	Bastos Sales et al. 2013
Methoxychlor	—	+	—	—	—	DNA methylation	Anway et al. 2005; Stouder and Paoloni-Giacobino 2011; Gore et al. 2011; Manikkam et al. 2014; Zama and Uzumcu 2009
n-Butylparaben	—	+	—	—	—	DNA methylation	Zhang et al. 2016
Organophosphate flame-retardant (e.g., BDE-47, tetrabromobisphenol A)	—	+	+	+	—	DNA methylation	Bastos Sales et al. 2013; Byun et al. 2015; Soubry et al. 2017
						Histone marks	Otsuka et al. 2014
Phenols (e.g., 4-nonylphenol, 4-octylphenol)	—	—	+	—	—	Histone marks	Ghosh et al. 2019; Hung et al. 2010
Phthalates	—	+	+	+	—	DNA methylation	C-H Chen et al. 2018; J Chen et al. 2015; Grindler et al. 2018; LaRocca et al. 2014; Martinez-Arguelles and Papadopoulos 2015; Solomon et al. 2017; Stenz et al. 2017; Tindula et al. 2018; Wu et al. 2017; Xia et al. 2018; PJ Yang et al. 2018
						Histone marks	Gutiérrez García et al. 2019; Sonkar et al. 2016
						Noncoding RNAs	LaRocca et al. 2016; Machtinger et al. 2018; Martínez-Ibarra et al. 2019; Meruvu et al. 2016; Stenz et al. 2017; Zhong et al. 2019
Polyhalogenated biphenyls (e.g., polybrominated biphenyl and polychlorinated biphenyls)	—	+	+	+	—	DNA methylation	Bastos Sales et al. 2013; Curtis et al. 2019; Matsumoto et al. 2014; Priya et al. 2018
						Histone marks	Casati et al. 2013
p,pʹ-DDE	—	+	—	—	—	DNA methylation	Song et al. 2014; Song and Yang 2018
Pharmaceutical compounds
Cyproterone acetate	—	—	+	—	—	Nucleosome occupancy	Ankolkar et al. 2018
Diethylstilbestrol	—	+	+	—	—	DNA methylation	Bastos Sales et al. 2013; Bromer et al. 2009; Chen et al. 2015; Singh et al. 2018
						Histone marks	Jefferson et al. 2013; Sato et al. 2006, 2009; Singh et al. 2018
						Noncoding RNA	Bhan et al. 2014; Padmanabhan et al. 2017; Singh et al. 2018; Stenz et al. 2017
Exogenous estrogen (e.g., ethinyl estradiol, estradiol benzoate)	—	+	+	—	—	DNA methylation	Cheng et al. 2008; Cheong et al. 2018; de Assis et al. 2012; Gore et al. 2011; Ho et al. 2006; Meunier et al. 2012; van der Weijden et al. 2018; Y-M Yang et al. 2018
						Noncoding RNA	Maillot et al. 2009; Meunier et al. 2012
Tamoxifen	—	+	+	—	—	DNA methylation	Stone et al. 2012; Tryndyak et al. 2007
						Nucleosome occupancy	Ankolkar et al. 2018
						Histone marks	Tryndyak et al. 2006
Dietary compounds
Epigallocatechin gallate	—	+	—	—	—	Histone marks	Lombó et al. 2019
Phytoestrogens (e.g., genistein, resveratrol, and daidzein)	+	+	+	—	—	DNA methylation	Adjakly et al. 2011; Bosviel et al. 2012; Dolinoy et al. 2007; Fudhaili et al. 2019; Jadhav et al. 2017; Kala and Tollefsbol 2016; Lou et al. 2014; Majid et al. 2010; Qin et al. 2009; Tang et al. 2008; Vanhees et al. 2011; Xie et al. 2014
						Histone marks	Kala and Tollefsbol 2016; Majid et al. 2008, 2010; Venturelli et al. 2013
Mixtures
Mixed contaminants (industrial chemicals, e.g., p,pʹ-DDE, Li, Fe, Ni, Sb, Pb, Bi, V, As, S)	—	—	—	—	+	DNA methylation	Guillette et al. 2016
Mixture—plastic derived EDCs (BPA, DEHP, DBP)	—	+	—	—	—	DNA methylation	Manikkam et al. 2013
Total xenoestrogens	—	—	—	+	—	DNA methylation	Vilahur et al. 2014
Others
Metals (e.g., inorganic As, Cd, Cr, Pb)	—	+	+	+	—	DNA methylation	Castillo et al. 2012; Doi et al. 2011; Meakin et al. 2019; Pilsner et al. 2009; Ronco et al. 2010; Sen et al. 2015; Smeester et al. 2011; Winterbottom et al. 2019
						Histone marks	Cronican et al. 2013; Jo et al. 2009; Li et al. 2002; Winterbottom et al. 2019; Zhou et al. 2009; Zhu et al. 2018
						Chromatin accessibility	VonHandorf et al. 2018
						Noncoding RNA	Cheng et al. 2018
Tetrahydrofurandiols	—	+	—	—	—	Histone marks	Shoulars et al. 2008
Vinclozolin	—	+	—	+	—	DNA methylation	Anway et al. 2005; Beck et al. 2017; Goodrich et al. 2019; Guerrero-Bosagna et al. 2010, 2012; Iqbal et al. 2015; Lee and Oh 2012; McCarrey et al. 2016; Pietryk et al. 2018
						Histone retention sites	Ben Maamar et al. 2018
						Noncoding RNAs	Brieño-Enríquez et al. 2015; Schuster et al. 2016
Zearalenone	—	+	+	—	—	DNA methylation	Gao et al. 2019; Karaman and Ozden 2019; Men et al. 2019
						Histone marks	Gao et al. 2019; Men et al. 2019

Note: Animal studies include findings in both vertebrate and invertebrate models. Plus signs (+) indicate that there is evidence that the compound(s) in question exhibits epigenetic-modulating properties in the systems specified. —, Not applicable; As, arsenic; BDE 47, tetrabromodiphenyl ether; Bi, bismuth; BPA, bisphenol A; Cd, cadmium; Cr, chromium; DBP, dibutyl phthalate; DEHP, di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate; EDC, endocrine-disrupting chemical; Fe, iron; Li, lithium; Ni, nickel; Pb, lead; p,pʹ-DDE, p,pʹ-dichlorodiphenoxydichloroethylene; S, sulfur; Sb, antimony; V, vanadium.