Figure 1.

The Dynamic Duo

The interaction between OVs and the immune system can lead to both the inhibition and stimulation of the immune system. OV detection and blocking by the immune system is mainly done via nAbs, type I IFN, and NK cells (red lines, left side). Different strategies have been engineered to overcome the effect of nAbs such as encapsulation, polymers, and carrier cells (green lines, left side). At the same time, some of these inhibitory responses can also lead to stimulation of the immune system via ICD, type I and type II IFN, and cell modulation (green lines, top right side). Alternatively, OVs can be engineered to activate the immune system by inserting immunostimulatory molecules such as TAAs, chemokines, cytokines, BiTe, and BiKe (green lines, center right side).