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. 2019 Dec 31;9(1):98. doi: 10.3390/cells9010098

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© 2019 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Examples of immunomodulatory effects exerted by mesenchymal stem/stromal cell extracellular vesicles (MSC EVs). EVs inhibit the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines but increase the levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines in monocytic cells. They exert negative effects on dendritic cell maturation and activation with impairment of antigen uptake and also on the proliferation of CD4⁺ T cells, CD8⁺ T cells, NK cells and B cells. These EVs promote the conversion of Th1 into Th2 and reduce Th17 differentiation. In contrast, MSC EVs enhance the differentiation of regulatory cells such as M2 macrophages, CD4⁺CD25⁺FOXP3⁺Treg and CD4⁺IL-10⁺Tr1.