Table 2.

Examples of actin microfilament drug actions and cellular effects. Different actin microfilament drugs act to disrupt the actin dynamics and organisation in the cell. However, the importance of actin filaments in normal cell physiology also results in toxicity due to non-specificity (ATP, Adenosine Triphosphate).

Drug	Mechanistic Action	Cellular Effects	Toxicity	Ref.
Cytochalasins	Binds to F-actin at high affinity to inhibit microfilament nucleation and polymerisation	Inhibit tumour growth in cell lines of various cancer types—breast, lung and prostate Inhibit tumour growth and spontaneous metastasis in mouse	Congestion necrosis at the edge of the liver in rat Cardiac toxicity—change in stability of myofilament and reduce cardiac muscle contractibility	[101,102,103,104,105,106]
Chaetoglobosin	Prevents the nucleation of microfilament through the interaction with F-actin at the barb end of microfilaments	Inhibition of angiogenesis, cell growth and migration Activation of apoptosis	Induced necrosis of thymus and spleen as well as spermatocytes degeneration in mice Lethal at 2 mg/kg subcutaneous injection in Wistar rats	[107,108,109]
Jasplakinolide	Promotes the polymerisation and stability of microfilament by binding to F actin at multiple sites	Inhibition of growth in prostate carcinoma with the inhibition of actin cytoskeleton Induction of apoptosis	Cardiac toxicity due to its effect on several specific calcium and potassium ion channels in cardiomyocytes	[110,111,112,113]
Latrunculins	Inhibits microfilament polymerisation through interaction with G-actin monomer near the ATP binding site	Activate programmed cell death through the activation of caspase 3/7 pathway in gastric cancer Inhibition of tumour invasion in breast cancer	Induced chronic seizures with micro perfusion to the hippocampus of rat	[114,115,116,117]
MKT-077	Able to cross-link F-actin, leading to aberrant microfilaments	Cross linking promotes membrane ruffling and prevent Ras transformation of cells Inhibition of tumour growth and prolonged survival in vivo and in vitro	Renal toxicity, with hypomagnesemia and manageable toxicity such as peripheral oedema	[88,118,119,120]