Figure 1.

Integrating NbS to climate change impacts into the social–ecological vulnerability framework. Ecosystem exposure is the extent to which systems are subject to pressures (floods, droughts, landslides, fires, etc.). It is determined by the intensity, duration and frequency of events, geomorphology and the extent of use and management of natural resources by human societies. Ecosystem sensitivity is the degree to which ecosystem structure and function alters as a result of perturbations. Ecosystem exposure combined with ecosystem sensitivity creates a potential impact. This is buffered over time by the adaptive capacity of the ecosystem. Both ecosystem sensitivity and adaptive capacity are determined by the diversity, heterogeneity and connectedness of the ecosystem and the characteristics and condition of its component species and habitats. Overall ecosystem vulnerability is shaped by the combination of potential impact and adaptive capacity. This ultimately affects the delivery of ecosystem goods and services upon which people and economies depend. In this way, ecosystem vulnerability affects socioeconomic vulnerability, i.e. the degree to which the social system is adversely affected by change. Socioeconomic sensitivity is also influenced by a range of social, political and economic factors. For example, corruption or low levels of health, education or employment, and a lack of economic diversification can increase socioeconomic sensitivity. Likewise, socioeconomic adaptive capacity, that can moderate the potential impact from social exposure and sensitivity, includes the ability to innovate (e.g. improving health, education and finding alternatives sources of income). NbS bring all these elements together and can, if implemented properly and equitably, decrease social–ecological vulnerability (see main text, and table 1). (Online version in colour.)