Table 2. Serology surveys in unvaccinated wildlife yielding the estimated percentage with detectable rabies-specific antibodies in serum.
| Species | Country | Seroprevalence (95% CI) | Sample Size (# Positive) | Cutoff | Test Method | Seropositive Titre Range | Ref |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) | Kenya | 3.6 (0.1–18.4) | 28 (1) | 0.5 IU/mL | RFFIT | NA | [117] |
| Kenya | 1.4 (0.0–7.8) | 69 (1) | 0.05 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.25 IU/mL | [51] | |
| Namibia | 8.6 (3.6–17.0) | 81 (7) | 1:10 | FAVN | NA | [74] | |
| African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) | Tanzania | 25.0 (5.5–57.2) | 12 (3) | 0.5 IU/mL | RFFIT | All 0.55 IU/mL | [54] |
| Kenya | 8.6 (2.9–19.0) | 58 (5) | 0.05 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.067 to >0.418 IU/mL | [51] | |
| Wolf (Canis lupus) | US | 1.1 (0.0–6.2) | 88 (1) | 1:10 | RFFIT | NA | [118] |
| Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) | Ethiopia | 13.3 (1.7–40.5) | 15 (2) | RFFIT: 1:50 ELISA: 0.5 IU/0.2 mL |
RFFIT; ELISAs | RFFIT: both 1:60 ELISA: 1.2–2.5 |
[35] |
| Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus) | US | 4.3 (1.2–10.8) | 92 (4) | 1:5 | Modified SNT | 1:11–1:45 | [97] |
| Crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) | Brazil | 5.9 (1.6–14.2) | 68 (4) | 0.10 IU/mL | Modified SNT | 0.10–0.27 IU/mL | [73] |
| Bush dog (Speothos venaticus) | Brazil | 100.0 (2.5–100.0) | 1 (1) | 0.10 IU/mL | Modified SNT | 1.6 IU/mL | [73] |
| Maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) | Brazil | 14.3 (7.8–23.2) | 91 (13) | 0.10 IU/mL | Modified SNT | 0.1–0.27 IU/mL | [73] |
| Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) | Tanzania | 37.0 (27.6–47.2) | 100 (37) | 0.5 IU/mL | RFFIT | NA | [119] |
| Kenya | 6.5 (2.7–13.0) | 107 (7) | 0.05 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.09–0.29 IU/mL | [51] | |
| Small Indian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) | Puerto Rico | 39.3 (30.2–49.0) | 112 (44) | 0.1 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.1–50.0 IU/mL | [98] |
| Small Asian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) | Grenada | 18.9 (16.0–22.1) | 672 (127) | 1:2 | Modified SNT | 1:5,900 | [120] |
| Pampas cat (Leopardus colocolo) | Brazil | 20.0 (0.5–71.6) | 5 (1) | 0.10 IU/mL | Modified SNT | 0.13 IU/mL | [73] |
| Jaguar (Panthera once) | Brazil | 23.1 (5.0–53.8) | 13 (3) | 0.10 IU/mL | Modified SNT | 0.10–0.13 IU/mL | [73] |
| Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) | Brazil | 20.0 (2.5–55.6) | 10 (2) | 0.10 IU/mL | Modified SNT | 0.10–0.13 IU/mL | [73] |
| Puma (Puma concolor) | Brazil | 12.5 (0.3–52.7) | 8 (1) | 0.10 IU/mL | Modified SNT | 0.10 IU/mL | [73] |
| Lion (Panthera leo) | Zambia | 40.0 (19.1–64.0) | 20 (8) | 0.2 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.2–1.8 IU/mL | [45] |
| Oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus) | Bolivia | 100 (2.5–100.0) | 1 (1) | NA | RFFIT | >70 IU/mL | [55] |
| Common Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus) | Argentina | Pre: 3.0 (1.9–4.6) During: 6.6 (2.2–14.7) Post: 16.8 (10.3–25.3) |
Pre: 694 (21) During: 76 (5) Post: 107 (18) |
1:5 | MNT | NA | [22] |
| Brazil | 7.4 (4.2–11.8) | 204 (15) | 0.5 IU/mL | ELISA; RFFIT | NA | [121] | |
| Big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) | US | 9.6 (5.8–14.8) | 187 (18) | 1:8 | Modified SNT | NA | [122] |
| Little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) | US | 2.4 (0.5–6.8) | 127 (3) | 1:8 | Modified SNT | NA | [122] |
| Mexican free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) | US | 68.5 (65.1–71.8) | 750 (514) | 1:10 | Modified SNT | NA | [123] |
| Human (Homo sapien) | Peru | 11.1 (4.6–21.6) | 63 (7) | 0.1 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.1–2.8 IU/mL | [13] |
| Nigeria | 28.6 (23.9–33.6) | 350 (100) | 1:8 | RFFIT | 1:8–1:64 | [11] | |
| Capuchin monkey (Cebus paella) | Brazil | 6.7 (0.2–32.0) | 15 (1) | 0.11 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.33 IU/mL | [57] |
| Brazil | 11.1 (3.1–26.1) | 36 (4) | 0.25 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.7–1.3 IU/mL | [58] | |
| Black bear (Ursus americanus) | US | 5.2 (1.4–12.8) | 77 (4) | 1:5 | RFFIT | 1:20–1:320 | [124] |
| Opossum (Didelphis aurita) | Brazil | 11.0 (5.8–18.4) | 109 (12) | 0.11 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.11–1.00 IU/mL | [61] |
| Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) | US | 9.1 (5.5–14.0) | 198 (18) | 0.09 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.13–2.36 IU/mL | [125] |
| Raccoon (Procyon lotor) | US | 40.5 (24.8–57.9) | 37 (15) | 0.05 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.05 to <0.12 IU/mL | [56] |
| US | MNT: 17.2 (13.1–22.0) RFFIT:25.3 (20.1–31.1) |
297 (51) 253 (64) |
1:2 1:5 |
MNT; RFFIT | 1:5–1:125 | [23] | |
| Crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus) | Brazil | 7.7 (0.2–36.0) | 13 (1) | 0.10 IU/mL | Modified SNT | 0.27 IU/mL | [73] |
| Coati (Nasua nasua) | Brazil | 100.0 (15.8–100.0) | 2 (2) | 0.11 IU/mL | RFFIT | 0.12–0.20 IU/mL | [57] |
This is not an exhaustive list of all studies but covers a breadth of species and locations. The 95% CI for the percentage seropositivity is shown. Sample size is shown with number of seropositive individuals in brackets. The type of serology test and cutoff used are shown. A number of studies used SNTs other than the RFFIT or FAVN; for simplicity, these are referred to as modified SNTs. Where provided, the cutoff titre used to define a seropositive is shown converted to IU; otherwise, the dilution is shown. Pre, during, and post refer to time of sampling relative to a rabies outbreak in cattle in [22]. Further information on each study is included in S2 Table in the supporting information. Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; FAVN, fluorescent antibody virus neutralisation; IU, international units; MNT, mouse neutralisation test; NA, not available; RFFIT, rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test; SNT, serum neutralisation test.