Table 2.
Characteristics of the selected studies.
| Study | Participants | Cognitive Domain | Elevated Blood Pressure | Links to Cognitive Impairment | Follow-Up (Years) | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Group | N | Age M (SD) | Sex (% men) a | SBP M (SD) a | DBP M (SD) a | GC | ME | EF | LG | AT | PS | VS | ||||
| Elias et al., 1990 [41] | 301 | 44.1 (12.8) | 45.1 | 135.0 (26.1) | 88.0 (15.5) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | |||||
| Elias et al., 1995 [42] | 1695 | 67.2 (7.5) | 59.4 | 131.1 (17.6) | 82.1 (9.4) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Not direct | 28 | |||
| Launer et al., 1995 [43] | 3735 | 52.7 (4.7) | 100 | 131.3 (16.6) | 82.9 (9.4) | ✓ | SBP | Positive | 28 | |||||||
| Cacciatore et al., 1997 [44] | 1106 | 73.9 | 55 | 145.3 (19.0) | 82.0 (9.2) | ✓ | DBP | Positive | - | |||||||
| Cerhan et al., 1998 [45] | 13,913 | 45–69 | 44 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive in women | ||||||||
| van Boxtel et al., 1997 [46] | 943 | 25–80 | 50.3 | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Non-Linear | - | ||||||
| Kilander et al., 1998 [47] | 999 | 100 | 82.0 (10.0) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | DBP | Positive | 20 | |||||||
| Swan et al., 1998 [48] | 717 | 76.3 (4.1) | 134.2 (8.8) | 85.8 (5.9) | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP | Positive | 25–30 | ||||
| Glynn et al., 1999 [49] | 3809 | >65 | 38 | 145.6 (6.2) | ✓ | ✓ | SBP | J curve | 9 | |||||||
| Di Carlo et al., 2000 [50] | 3134 | 74.0 (5.6) | ✓ | SBP/DBP | No Relationship | |||||||||||
| Knopman et al., 2001 [51] | 10,882 | 56.8 (5.7) | 44 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | 6 | |||||||
| Bohannon, et al., 2002 [52] | 3202 | 73 (6.29) | 33 | 143.1 (20.3) | 79.2 (11.8) | ✓ | SBP | J curve | 3 | |||||||
| Izquierdo-Porrera and Waldstein, 2002 [53] | 43 | 59.0 (11.2) | 17.0 | 136.0 (21.0) | 78.0 (11.0) | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | DBP | Positive | - | ||||
| Morris et al., 2002 [54] | 5816 | 64–104 | 39 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | U curve | ||||||||
| Pandav et al., 2003 [55] | 5446 | 74.1 (5.7) | 43 | 141.3 (18.4) | 76.2 (9.9) | ✓ | ✓ | Low DBP | Positive in Indian | - | ||||||
| Elias et al., 2003 [56] | Men | 551 | 65.7 (6.9) | 100 | 131.4 (14.6) | 82.7 (8.3) | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✘ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive only in men | 4–6 | ||
| Women | 872 | 67.2 (7.3) | 0 | 131.7 (16.9) | 80.1 (8.4) | |||||||||||
| Reinprecht et al., 2003 [57] | 186 | 68.0 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | DBP | Positive | 13 | ||||||||
| Kähönen-Väre et al., 2004 [58] | 650 | >75 | 26.3 | 157.9 (2.0) | 82.3 (1.0) | ✓ | Lower DBP | Positive | 10 | |||||||
| Kuo et al., 2004 [59] | 70 | 72.0 (4.0) | 55.7 | 134.4 (16.6) | - | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ | SBP | Positive | - | |||||
| Hebert et al., 2004 [60] | 4284 | 74.0 (6.4) | 48 | 139.6 (19.6) | 77.3 (11.5) | ✓ | DBP | U curve | 6 | |||||||
| Waldstein et al., 2005 [61] | 847 | 70.6 (8.5) | 59 | 138.7 (20.0) | 82.0 (10.9) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | U curve | 11 | |||
| Kuo et al., 2005 [62] | 2802 | 73.6 (5.9) | 24.1 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP | Positive | 2 | |||||||
| Singh-Manoux & Marmot, 2005 [63] | Man | 5838 | 43.9 (6.0) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive in men | 2 | |||||||
| Woman | 44.4 (6.0) | |||||||||||||||
| Wharton et al., 2006 [64] | 105 | 19.2 (1.1) | 43 | 114.1 (12.6) | 70.7 (9.3) | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | |||||||
| Axelsson et al., 2008 [65] | 97 | 81 | 100 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Negative | - | ||||
| Knecht et al., 2008 [66] | 377 | 64.0 (6.6) | 45.4 | 144.0 (18.8) | 85.0 (10.8) | ✓ | SBP | Positive | - | |||||||
| Gupta et al., 2008 [67] | 85 | 52.0 (7.5) | 69.4 | 137.4 (27.2) | 89.7 (18.3) | ✓ | ✓b | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | ||||
| Obisesan et al., 2008 [68] | 5724 | >60 | 42.9 | 139.8 | 74.7 | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | |||||||
| Knecht et al., 2009 [69] | 377 | 64.0 (6.6) | 45.4 | 144.0 (18.8) | ✓ | SBP | Positive | - | ||||||||
| Gunstad et al., 2009 [70] | 99 | 69.2 (7.5) | 60.6 | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ | ✘ | SBP/DBP | Negative | - | ||||||
| Arntzen et al., 2011 [71] | Men | 2227 | 58.8 (9.2) | 143.3 (19.3) | ✓ | ✓ | SBP | Positive | 7 | |||||||
| Women | 2806 | 58.2 (9.7) | 141.6 (22.6) | |||||||||||||
| Yeung and Thornton, 2011 [72] | 74 | 66.2 (8.4) | 0 | 120.4 (17.2) | 75.1 (11.1) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | ||||
| Goldstein et al., 2013 [73] | 1385 | 73.5 (8.9) | 48.7 | 134.1 (14.3) | 74.7 (9.0) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | 3 | ||
| Crichton et al., 2014 [74] | 972 | 23–98 | 41 | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | |||||||||
| Gottesman et al., 2014 [75] | 13,476 | 57.0 (6.0) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | 20 | ||||||||
| Yaffe et al., 2014 [76] | 3381 | 18–30 | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | 25 | ||||||||
| Conway et al., 2015 [77] | 319 | 72 | 34 | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive SBP and Negative DBP | - | |||||||||
| Goldstein et al., 2017 [78] | 844 | 74.7 | 36 | 140.9 | 76.2 | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | 4 | |||
| Ferreira et al., 2017 [79] | 131 | 67.7 (5.3) | 48.1 | 136.7 (16.1) | 73.6 (9.4) | ✓ | SBP | Indirect relation | 7 | |||||||
| HYPERTENSIVE vs. NORMOTENSIVE | ||||||||||||||||
| Waldstein et al., 1996 [80] | Young normotensive | 26 | 35.1 (3.8) | 100 | 117.9 (8.0) | 74.3 (7.9) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive in young | - | |||
| Young hypertensive | 59 | 35.15 (3.9) | 145.6 (13.5) | 97.2 (7.1) | ||||||||||||
| Middle-aged normotensive | 24 | 46.6 (4.5) | 118.3 (10.2) | 75.3 (5.2) | ||||||||||||
| Middle-aged hypertensive | 64 | 48.1 (4.7) | 146.9 (7.9) | 97.8 (7.9) | ||||||||||||
| Harrington et al., 2000 [81] | Hypertensive | 107 | 76.0 (4.0) | 45 | 164.0 (9.0) | 89.0 (7.0) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | ||||
| Normotensive | 116 | 76.0 (4.0) | 50 | 131.0 (10.0) | 74.0 (7.0) | |||||||||||
| André-Petersson, et al., 2001 [82] | Normotensive | 72 | 68 | 100 | ✓b | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✘ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | ||||
| Hypertensive 1 | 166 | |||||||||||||||
| Hypertensive 2 | 138 | |||||||||||||||
| Hypertensive 3 | 88 | |||||||||||||||
| André-Petersson et al., 2003 [83] | Normotensive | 24 | 68 | 100 | ✓b | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | 13 | ||||
| Hypertensive 1 | 73 | |||||||||||||||
| Hypertensive 2 | 46 | |||||||||||||||
| Hypertensive 3 | 25 | |||||||||||||||
| Saxby et al., 2003 [84] | Hypertensive | 250 | 76.4 (4.0) | 47 | 165.0 (8.0) | 88.0 (7.0) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | ||||
| Normotensive | 256 | 56 | 131.0 (11.0) | 73.0 (7.0) | ||||||||||||
| Waldstein and Katzel, 2004 [85] | Normotensive: | ✓b | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | |||||||
| Men | 30 | 66.8 (6.7) | 100 | 123.2 (10.2) | 71.8 (6.7) | |||||||||||
| Women | 26 | 65.1 (6.6) | 0 | 117.3 (10.7) | 67.1 (6.9) | |||||||||||
| Hypertensive | ||||||||||||||||
| Men | 31 | 68.9 (6.6) | 100 | 147.4 (13.7) | 80.4 (7.5) | |||||||||||
| Women | 11 | 66.1 (5.6) | 0 | 146.2 (13.5) | 81.4 (6.9) | |||||||||||
| Brady et al., 2005 [86] | Normal blood pressure: | ✘ | ✘ | ✓c | ✘ | SBP/DBP | No direct | 3 | ||||||||
| Normotensive | 203 | 66.0 (7.0) | 124.4 (9.4) | 78.5 (5.9) | ||||||||||||
| Controlled | 34 | 68.6 (6.0) | 127.2 (7.9) | 77.8 (8.1) | ||||||||||||
| Hypertensive: | ||||||||||||||||
| Untreated | 75 | 68.4(7.5) | 156.8 (16.1) | 89.1(11) | ||||||||||||
| Uncontrolled | 45 | 69.5(6.1) | 15.2(14.3) | 89.0(9.4) | ||||||||||||
| Waldstein et al., 2005 [87] | Normotensive: | 101 | ✓ b | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | ||||||
| Normal BP | 65.8 (6.5) | 61 | 120.0 (10.6) | 69.6 (7.2) | ||||||||||||
| High BP | 67.0 (6.0) | 65 | 145.5 (7.8) | 80.9 (5.4) | ||||||||||||
| Hypertensive: | ||||||||||||||||
| Normal BP | 68.4 (9.8) | 69 | 132.7 (5.4) | 76.5 (7.9) | ||||||||||||
| High BP | 67.6 (5.0) | 72 | 159.3 (8.8) | 84.8 (6.5) | ||||||||||||
| Hannesdottir et al., 2009 [88] | Normotensive | 30 | 68.3 (8.5) | 53.3 | 127.0 (11.3) | 74.0 (10.0) | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | Positive | - | ||
| Treated Hypertension | 40 | 69.3(11.3) | 60.0 | 152.0(19.4) | 85.0(11.0) | |||||||||||
| Untreated Hypertension | 10 | 57.6(6.1) | 50.0 | 167.0(16.3) | 100.0(6.3) | |||||||||||
| Huang et al., 2009 [89] | Hypertension | 446 | 93.6(3.4) | 31.1 | 154.8(17.4) | 77.0(6.0) | ✘ | ✓ | SBP/DBP | No relation | - | |||||
| Normotension | 336 | 93.7(3.4) | 34.2 | 120.3(12.3) | 66.9(9.3) | |||||||||||
| Yeung and Loken Thornton, 2017 [90] | Hypertensive | 71 | 70.3(6.5) | 50 | 136.3(10.2) | 73.3(8.6) | ✓ | ✘ | ✓ | ✓ | SBP | Positive | - | |||
| Normotensive | 62 | 70.2(6.4) | 38 | 119.3(12.8) | 71.2(8.4) | |||||||||||
M = mean; SD = standard deviation; SBP = Systolic Blood Pressure; DBP = Diastolic Blood Pressure; ✘ = domain assessed but not impairment by specific study; ✓ = domain assessed and impairment by specific study; GC = global cognition; ME = memory; LG = language; AT = attention; EF = executive functioning; PS = information processing speed; VS = visuoperceptual skills; a not reported in all studies; b Visual memory impairment; c Visual Attention impairment.