Table 3.
Characteristics of the study findings for the studies included to the systematic review accompanied by the quality assessment based on the total score for the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale.
| Ref. | Findings | Quality * | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Observation | Conclusion | ||
| [40] | Women with high stress consumed significantly less fruits (p = 0.01) and vegetables (p = 0.02) than women with low stress, with effect sizes of d = 0.24 and 0.25, respectively, for the between-group differences. | Nutrition counselling on increasing fruit and vegetable intakes may consider targeting women who are black or younger or who report high stress, respectively. | 5 |
| [41] | After adjustment for confounding variables, participants in the highest quartile of the fruits consumption and vegetables consumption had lower prevalence ratio (PR) for depressive symptoms (PR = 0.76; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.603–0.974, p = 0.042; PR = 0.77; 95% CI: 0.612–0.977, p = 0.045) than those in the lowest quartile. Those in the highest quartile of total vegetables and fruits consumption had also a lower PR of depressive symptoms (PR = 0.67; 95% CI: 0.503–0.806, p = 0.037) than did those in the lowest quartile. | Higher consumption of vegetables and fruits is significantly associated with a lower risk of depressive symptoms. | 5 |
| [42] | Frequent consumption of fruits and vegetables is associated with improved health outcomes, including mental health. | Frequent consumption of fruits and vegetables contributes to slower disablement processes and might be an easily implementable way to improve the overall health of older adults. | 6 |
| [43] | Fruit and vegetable consumption predicted an increased cognitive performance in older adults including improved verbal recall, improved delayed verbal recall, improved digit span test performance and improved verbal fluency; the effect of fruit consumption was much stronger than the effect of vegetable consumption. Regarding mental health, fruit consumption was significantly associated with better subjective quality of life and less depressive symptoms; vegetable consumption, however, did not significantly relate to mental health. | Consumption of fruits is associated with both improved cognitive and mental health in older adults from non-Western developing countries, and consumption of vegetables is associated with improved cognitive health only. Increasing fruit and vegetable consumption might be one easy and cost-effective way to improve the overall health and quality of life of older adults in non-Western developing countries. | 5 |
| [44] | Consumption of vegetables and fruits in the last 3 days was less likely to be associated with depression (OR 0.11; 95% CI: 0.02–0.45) and subsyndromal depression (OR 0.10; CI 95%: 0.03–0.39). | Findings support the importance for a healthy consumption of vegetables and fruits for the older adult population in Singapore. | 5 |
| [45] | Fixed effects regressions show that mental well-being (GHQ-12) responds in a dose-response fashion to increases in both the quantity and the frequency of fruit and vegetables consumed. This relationship is robust to the use of subjective well-being (life satisfaction) instead of mental well-being. Increasing one’s consumption of fruit and vegetables by one portion (on a day where at least one portion is consumed) leads to a 0.133-unit increase in mental well-being (p < 0.01). | Persuading people to consume more fruits and vegetables may not only benefit their physical health in the long-run, but also their mental well-being in the short-run. | 6 |
| [35] | Results of generalized estimating equations predicting mental-health-related quality of life indicated that more frequent fruit consumption (p = 0.485) was not, but more frequent vegetable consumption (p = 0.027) was in the fully adjusted model associated with greater mental health-related quality of life. Fruit and vegetable consumption (p = 0.033) was associated with greater mental-health-related quality of life only in the unadjusted model. More frequent fruit (p = 0.566 and p = 0.751, respectively), vegetable (p = 0.173 and p = 0.399), and fruit and vegetable consumption (p = 0.252 and p = 0.634, respectively) did not significantly reduce the risk of major depression and generalized anxiety disorder. | The study did not find evidence that more frequent fruit and vegetable consumption was associated with mental-health-related quality of life, depression, and anxiety. However, more frequent vegetable consumption was associated with greater mental-health-related quality of life. | 5 |
| [46] | Inverse association was found between mental distress and higher intake of fruits (β = −0.64, 95% CI: −0.89 to −0.39; p < 0.001), vegetables (β = − 0.39, 95% CI: −0.65 to −0.13; p < 0.003). | Study suggests beneficial association of Mediterranean diet and its elements (including fruit and vegetables intake) and overall mental health, offering important implications for public health provisions. | 5 |
| [47] | After adjusting for potential confounders such as age, body-mass-index (BMI), parity, educational status, occupation, marital status, household hunger scale and household asset index, there was an increasing trend across terciles of vegetable intake in the past month for the HR-QoL (p = 0.0003), mental health (MH) (p = 0.001) domain of the SF-36 and role emotional (p < 0.0001) domain of the SF-36. The multivariate model results a significant increasing trend in the adjusted mean scores of the HR-QoL (p = 0.04), MH (p = 0.001) as well as 4 subscales of the SF-36 [role-physical (p = 0.02), role-emotional (p = 0.05), emotional well-being (p = 0.002) and vitality (p < 0.0001)] across terciles of the vegetable variety score. | Results suggest a potential beneficial role of high vegetable intake and consumption of more varied vegetables on HR-QoL. | 3 |
| [48] | After adjustment for confounding variables, the participants in the lower quartiles of total fruit and vegetables, total vegetables, total fruits, citrus, other fruits and green leafy vegetables intake were more likely to experience depression compared to those in the higher quartiles (p < 0.03). | Lower intake of total fruit and vegetables and some of its specific subgroups might be associated with depression. The findings support encouragement of fruit and vegetables consumption as part of a healthy diet and highlight the importance of fruit and vegetables consumption and a number of their subgroups in mitigating the chance of depression. | 7 |
| [49] | Mixed linear models showed that higher baseline levels of psychological well-being were associated with more fruit and vegetable consumption at baseline (β = 0.05, 95% CI: 0.02–0.08) and that fruit and vegetable consumption declined across time (β = 0.01, 95% CI: 0.02–0.004). Psychological well-being interacted significantly with time such that individuals with higher baseline psychological well-being had slower declines in fruit and vegetable consumption (β = 0.01, 95% CI: 0.01–0.02). Among individuals who initially met recommendations to consume 5 or more servings of fruits and vegetables, higher baseline psychological well-being was associated with 11% reduced risk of falling below recommended levels during follow-up (hazard ratio = 0.89; 95% CI: 0.83–0.95). | Psychological well-being may be a precursor to healthy behaviors such as eating a diet rich in fruits and vegetables. Analyses also considered the likelihood of reverse causality. | 6 |
| [50] | Controlling for covariates, raw fruit and vegetable intake (FVI) predicted reduced depressive symptoms and higher positive mood, life satisfaction, and flourishing; processed FVI only predicted higher positive mood. The top 10 raw foods related to better mental health were carrots, bananas, apples, dark leafy greens like spinach, grapefruit, lettuce, citrus fruits, fresh berries, cucumber, and kiwifruit. | Raw FVI, but not processed FVI, significantly predicted higher mental health outcomes when controlling for the covariates. Applications include recommending the consumption of raw fruits and vegetables to maximize mental health benefits. | 2 |
| [51] | Individuals who were depressed at both times points had the highest proportion who failed to consume any fruit (31%) or vegetables (42%) on the previous day. Fruit and vegetable consumption did not predict of adult depression in fully adjusted models. | Cross sectional associations existed for diet and adolescent depression only. For adult depression association was subsequently attenuated on adjustment for other relevant factors. | 5 |
| [52] | Happiness was linearly associated with total fruit and vegetable intakes (p = 0.002). | Maintaining good nutrition and increasing fruit and vegetable consumption may be important for psychological health of older people. | 4 |
| [53] | Subjects who reported to consume a greater amount of fruit were associated with a lower risk of depression (OR 0.46; 95% CI: 0.26–0.84, p = 0.011) after adjustment for many possible confounders. Similar results were obtained for women, while no statistically significant differences emerged for men. | Diet rich in olive oil and fruit, characteristics of Mediterranean diet, may protect against the development of depressive symptoms in older age. | 4 |
| [54] | Women in the top quintile of fruit intake, compared with those in the bottom quintile, had 57%, 50%, and 60% lower odds of depression, anxiety, and psychological distress. Consumption of vegetables was significantly associated with lower odds of depression (OR 0.65; 95% CI: 0.46–0.93) in women and lower odds of anxiety (OR 0.43; 95% CI: 0.22–0.87) in men. After adjustment for potential confounders, women in the highest quintile of fruit and vegetables intake, compared with those in the bottom quintile, had significantly lower odds of depression (OR 0.55; 95% CI: 0.37–0.80) and psychological distress (OR 0.60; 95% CI: 0.40–0.90). High intake of total fruit and vegetables was associated with lower odds of psychological distress (OR 0.42; 95% CI: 0.21–0.81) in men. | There was a significant inverse associations between high intake of fruit with depression, anxiety, and psychological distress in Iranian women. High consumption of vegetables was also associated with lower risk of depression and anxiety, in women and men. In addition, high intake of total fruit and vegetable was associated with lower odds of depression and psychological distress in women and men. | 6 |
| [55] | Vegetable intake were associated with increased sleep quality, which in turn was associated with increased overall quality of life (p < 0.05). | Results suggest possible relationships among the multiple health behaviors and their associations with overall well-being. | 3 |
| [56] | Perceived ambiguity and cancer fatalism were negatively associated with fruit and vegetables consumption (p < 0.001) whereas health-related self-efficacy was positively associated with fruit and vegetables consumption (b = 0.34, p < 0.001). | Individual choice influences fruit and vegetables consumption, but external control beliefs, as measured by perceived ambiguity of cancer prevention recommendations and cancer fatalism, and internal control beliefs, as measured by health-related self-efficacy, may be important inputs to these decisions. | 7 |
| [57] | In India, those who consumed less than five servings of vegetables were respectively 41% (AOR = 1.41; 95% CI: 0.60–3.33) and 57% (AOR = 1.57; 95% CI: 0.93–2.64) more likely to report severe-extreme and mild-moderate depression during past 30 days compared to those who consumed five servings a day. Regarding fruit consumption, compared to those who consumed five servings a day, the odds of severe-extreme and mild-moderate self-reported depression were respectively 3.5 times (AOR = 3.48; 95% CI: 1.216–10.01) and 45% (AOR = 1.44; 95% CI: 0.89–2.32) higher in Bangladesh, and 2.9 times (AOR = 2.92; 95% CI: 1.12–7.64) and 42% higher (AOR = 1.41; 95% CI: 0.89–2.24) in Nepal compared to those who consumed less than five servings a day during last 30 days. | Daily intake of less than five servings of fruit and vegetables was associated with higher odds of depression. Nutrition programs aimed at promoting fruit and vegetables consumption might prove beneficial to reduce the prevalence of depression in south Asian population. | 5 |
| [58] | Baseline fruit and vegetable consumption considered separately or combined, was associated with a lower prevalence of psychological distress even after adjustment for sociodemographic characteristics and lifestyle risk factors. Baseline fruit and vegetable consumption, measured separately or combined, was associated with a lower incidence of psychological distress in minimally adjusted models. Most of these associations remained significant at medium levels of intake but were no longer significant at the highest intake levels in fully adjusted models. | Increasing fruit and vegetable consumption may help reduce psychological distress in middle-aged and older adults. | 8 |
| [59] | Results indicate that the amount of fruit and vegetable consumption was positively associated with happiness and inversely associated with depression. Happiness increased with any increase to fruit and vegetable consumption, the strongest increase in the adjusted analysis was with 6 servings of fruit and vegetables, with a coefficient of 0.41. Depressive symptoms decreased with any increase to fruit and vegetable consumption, the strongest decrease in the adjusted analysis was with 6 servings of fruit and vegetables, with a coefficient of −1.04. | Healthier behavior patterns of fruit and vegetable consumption was associated with higher happiness and lower depression scores among university students across 28 countries. | 5 |
| [60] | The intake of green vegetables was associated with lower odds of having clinically-relevant levels of depressive symptoms (OR 0.192, p = 0.016). | Green vegetables, total FVI showed protective effects regarding clinically-relevant levels of depressive symptoms. | 5 |
| [61] | For depression subtypes, statistically significantly positive associations of vegetable consumption and adherence to the 5-a-day recommendation with current unspecified and current melancholic major depressive disorder were found (OR 2.09; 95% CI: 1.08–4.06 and OR 2.51; 95% CI: 1.21–5.21, respectively; multivariable adjusted for demographic and other dietary factors) | There is no consistent association between adherence to dietary recommendations and major depressive disorder or subtypes of depression. | 5 |
| [62] | Mean positive affect increased linearly as a function of number of daily servings of fruits and vegetables; the pattern of this relationship did not differ significantly for males and females. This association remained statistically significant after controlling for demographic variables (age, sex, and parent education levels); other diet variables (consumption of sugar containing beverages, coffee or tea, and fat); and other health behaviors (exercise, sleep quality and smoking). Life satisfaction and negative affect were not significantly related to fruit and vegetable consumption. | There is an association of fruits and vegetable consumption with well-being. | 3 |
| [63] | Participants in the lowest tertile of fruits and/or vegetables consumption had greater prevalence of depressive symptoms (PR = 1.88; 95% CI: 1.39–2.55) than those in the highest tertile. This association was stronger with fruits (PR = 1.92; 95% CI: 1.46–2.53) than vegetables (PR = 1.42; 95% CI: 1.05–1.93) alone. | An inverse relationship between consumption of fruits and/or vegetables and depressive symptoms was concluded. There is a need to implement strategies to promote better diet patterns with potential impact on mental health. | 6 |
| [64] | High fruit or high vegetable consumption alone (>5 times/week) was not significantly associated with new depressive symptoms. Combining high fruit (OR 0.61; 95% CI: 0.41–0.89), vegetable (OR 0.49; 95% CI: 0.26–0.93) or fruit and vegetable (OR 0.39; 95% CI: 0.20–0.77) consumption with high leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) reduced the likelihood of developing subsequent new depressive symptoms beyond LPTA alone. | The simultaneous presence of several good lifestyle habits (high fruit and vegetable consumption with high leisure-time physical activity) increases the beneficial effect of reducing the risk of developing depressive symptoms in older adults. Thus, older adults are encouraged to have as many good lifestyle habits as possible to reduce the risk of depressive symptoms. | 7 |
| [65] | Measure of happiness was positively associated with the amount of fruit and vegetable consumption (p = 0.02, and 0.045 respectively). Students who ate breakfast every day, more than 8 servings of fruit and vegetables daily, and had 3 meals in addition to 1–2 snacks per day had the highest happiness score. | Healthier behavior pattern (including fruit and vegetable consumption) was associated with higher happiness scores among medical students. | 3 |
| [66] | Increased fruit and vegetable consumption was predictive of increased happiness, life satisfaction, and well-being. They were up to 0.24 life-satisfaction points (for an increase of 8 portions a day), which is equal in size to the psychological gain of moving from unemployment to employment. Improvements occurred within 24 months. | Eating certain foods is a form of investment in future happiness and well-being. The implications of fruit and vegetable consumption are estimated to be substantial and to operate within the space of 2 years. | 5 |
| [67] | In males, anxiety was correlated with lower daily intakes of fruits and vegetables (r = −0.216, p = 0.013). | A strict plant-based diet does not appear to negatively impact mood. | 2 |
| [68] | Fruit and vegetables consumption predicted greater eudaemonic well-being, curiosity, and creativity at the between- and within-person levels. Young adults who ate more fruit and vegetables reported higher average eudaemonic well-being, more intense feelings of curiosity, and greater creativity compared with young adults who ate less fruit and vegetables. On days when young adults ate more fruit and vegetables, they reported greater eudaemonic well-being, curiosity, and creativity compared with days when they ate less fruit and vegetables. Fruit and vegetables consumption also predicted higher positive effects, which mostly did not account for the associations between fruit and vegetables and the other well-being variables. Lagged data analyses showed no carry-over effects of fruit and vegetables consumption onto next-day well-being (or vice versa). | Fruit and vegetables consumption may be related to a broader range of well-being states than signal human flourishing in early adulthood. | 4 |
| [69] | Fruit and vegetable consumption at each cycle was inversely associated with next-cycle depression (β = −0.03, 95% CI: −0.05 to −0.01, p < 0.01) and psychological distress (β = −0.03, 95% CI: −0.05 to −0.02, p < 0.0001). However, once models were adjusted for other health-related factors, these associations were attenuated (β = −0.01, 95% CI: −0.04 to 0.02, p = 0.55; β = −0.00, 95% CI: −0.03 to 0.02, p = 0.78 for models predicting depression and distress, respectively). | Findings suggest that relations between fruit and vegetable intake, other health-related behaviors and depression are complex. | 8 |
| [70] | Significant associations were found between vegetables intake (green salad) and physical health days for Hispanics and fruit and vegetables intake (green salad, fruit, and fruit juice) and self-reported health for Chinese. | There is a need to promote healthy living behaviors among aging NYC racial/ethnic populations | 5 |
| [71] | Men who experienced mild to moderate levels of stress were less likely to consume vegetables and fruit (p < 0.05) compared with their unstressed counterparts. The trend analysis results indicated significant dose–response patterns in the relationship between stress level and consumption of vegetables and fruit (negative trend) (adjusted OR 0.50; 95% CI: 0.48–0.87; p < 0.05). For female students significant dose–response trend was found in the relationship between stress levels and the consumption of vegetables and fruit (both negative trends) (p < 0.01). | There is a difference in food selection patterns between stressed male and female students, with stress being a more significant predictor of unhealthy food selection among male students. | 4 |
| [72] | Consumers fulfilling the 5-a-day recommendation had lower odds of being highly or moderately distressed than individuals consuming less fruit and vegetables (moderate vs. low distress: OR 0.82; 95% CI: 0.69–0.97; high vs. low distress: OR 0.55; 95% CI: 0.41–0.75). | Daily intake of 5 servings of fruit and vegetable was associated with lower psychological distress. | 5 |
| [73] | For females fresh fruits (−0.085; p < 0.001), salad/raw vegetables (−0.048; p < 0.001), cooked vegetables (−0.061; p < 0.001) intake were respectively negatively associated with Perceived Stress Score. For both sexes, consuming fresh fruits (−0.111; p < 0.001 for females; −0.074; p = 0.047 for males), salads (−0.071; p < 0.001 for females; −0.091; p = 0.014 for males), cooked vegetables (−0.072; p < 0.001 for females; −0.089; p = 0.017 for males) was significantly negatively associated with perceived stress and depressive symptoms scores. | The associations between consuming ‘healthy’ foods and lower depressive symptoms and perceived stress among male and female students in three UK countries suggest that interventions to reduce depressive symptoms and stress among students could also result in the consumption of healthier foods and/or vice versa. | 5 |
| [74] | Analysis showed reduced odds of depressive symptoms OR 0.86 (95% CI: 0.79–0.95, p = 0.001) among women who ate ⩾ 2 of fruit/day and OR 0.79 (95% CI: 0.67–0.93, p = 0.007) among women who ate ⩾ 5 vegetables/day, even after adjustment for several factors including smoking, alcohol, body mass index, physical activity, marital status, education, energy, fish intake, and comorbidities. | Increasing fruit consumption may be one important factor for reducing both the prevalence and incidence of depressive symptoms in mid-age women. | 6 |
| [75] | Higher Beck Depression Inventory scores correlated with lower fruit and vegetable consumption (r = −0.20, p = 0.006). Women reporting a history of treatment for depression showed lower levels of fruit and vegetable consumption (mean daily servings = 2.0 [1.3] vs. 2.5 [1.3], respectively, p = 0.03). Participants reporting current antidepressant use (versus non-users) did not differ on dietary habits. | Fruit and vegetable consumption partially mediated associations between depression and time to cardiovascular disease events. | 6 |
| [37] | Depressive symptoms were not associated with fruit and vegetables intake (p > 0.05). | Future studies should explore the mechanisms linking the identified associations between depressive symptoms and dietary intake, such as the role of emotional eating. | 6 |
| [76] | After adjustment for potential confounders, the AHEI score was inversely associated with recurrent depressive symptoms in a dose-response fashion in women (p = 0.001; for 1 SD in AHEI score; OR 0.59; 95% CI: 0.47–0.75) but not in men, while among its components vegetable and fruit intake were significant. | Poor diet may be a risk factor for future depression in women. | 6 |
| [38] | No significant associations were found between prevalence of distress and vegetable and/or fruit intake (p = 0.911 for males; p = 0.908 for females). | Psychological distress is not associated with reduced intake fruit and vegetables. | 5 |
| [77] | Greater fruit and vegetable intake was significantly associated with lower odds of depression (OR 0.72; 95% CI: 0.71–0.75)—for all 5 waves. Perceived poor mental health status and previous diagnosis of a mood disorder and anxiety disorder also demonstrated statistically significant inverse associations with fruit and vegetable intake (all p < 0.05). In the first wave, greater fruit and vegetable intake was significantly associated with lower odds of depression (OR 0.85; 95% CI: 0.78–0.92). A combined estimate of all 5 waves demonstrated similar results (OR 0.72; 95% CI: 0.71–0.75). Relative to those with the lowest fruit and vegetable intake, those with the greatest fruit and vegetable intake also had significantly lower odds of suffering from distress (OR 0.87; 95% CI: 0.78–0.98). These results were consistent across other waves. Perceived poor mental health status and previous diagnosis of a mood disorder and anxiety disorder also demonstrated statistically significant inverse associations with fruit and vegetable intake (all p < 0.05). |
Findings suggest a potentially important role of a healthy diet in the prevention of depression and anxiety. | 5 |
| [78] | There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) of intake of vegetable products and dishes in women with depression compared with women without depression. The regression model indicated among others that increased intakes per kilojoule of vegetables (p = 0.015) are associated with lower odds of having depression. | The results confirm a collective effect of diet on mood. | 6 |
| [79] | After adjustments for potentially confounding factors, the odds ratios of having mild and severe depressive symptoms by increasing levels of tomatoes/tomato products were 1.00, 0.54, and 0.48 (p <0.01). No relationship was observed between intake of other kinds of vegetables and depressive symptoms. | Tomato-rich diet is independently related to lower prevalence of depressive symptoms and may have a beneficial effect on the prevention of depressive symptoms. | 6 |
| [80] | Dietary intake of inter alia fruits and vegetables was significantly higher in the low-stress group than in high-stress group. There was an inverse association between stress level and intake of fruits and vegetables (OR 0.83; 95% CI: 0.76–0.90). | The results showed a significant positive association between dietary intake and stress. There must be a special attention to dietary intake in stress management program of high-stress individuals, and in dietary recommendations, psychologic aspects should be considered. | 5 |
| [81] | Analyses of same-day within-person associations revealed that on days when young adults experienced greater positive affect, they reported eating more servings of fruit (p = 0.002) and vegetables (p < 0.001). Results of lagged analysis showed that fruits and vegetables predicted improvements in positive affect the next day, suggesting that healthy foods were driving affective experiences and not vice versa. Meaningful changes in positive affect were observed with the daily consumption of approximately 7–8 servings of fruit or vegetables. | Eating fruit and vegetables may promote emotional well-being among healthy young adults. | 3 |
| [82] | In cross-sectional data, happiness and mental health rise in an approximately dose–response way with the number of daily portions of fruit and vegetables. Well-being peaks at approximately 7 portions per day. It was documented for seven measures of well-being (life satisfaction, WEMWBS mental well-being, GHQ mental disorders, self-reported health, happiness, nervousness, and feeling low). The pattern is robust to adjustment for a large number of other demographic, social and economic variables. | There is a positive association between eating fruit and vegetables and having high mental well-being. | 4 |
| [83] | Compared to the regional nutrition survey data, a greater proportion of study participants (the members of Mood Disorders Association of British Columbia) consumed fewer of the recommended servings of vegetables and fruits (p < 0.05). | The adults with mood disorders could benefit from nutritional interventions to improve diet quality. | 4 |
| [84] | Fruit and vegetable consumption was lower in depressed individuals, than in comparison individuals, that remained significant in multivariable models. | These results may indicate the importance of components of fruits and vegetables, including antioxidants, rather than dietary supplements. | 6 |
| [85] | In a regression model that controlled for demographic, socio-economic, lifestyle and disease/health-related variables but not cognitive status, both fruits (OR 0.66; 95% CI: 0.45–0.98, p = 0.038) and vegetables (OR 0.38; 95% CI: 0.17–0.86, p = 0.021) were protective against depressive symptoms 4 years later. When the same regression model was also adjusted for cognitive status, only vegetables (OR 0.40, 95% CI: 0.17–0.95, p = 0.039) were protective against depressive symptoms. | More frequent consumption of vegetables seems to be protective against depressive symptoms in the elderly. | 7 |
| [36] | Patients who ate fruit more frequently tended to have a better quality of life. | There is an association between food pattern and quality of life in this population. | 2 |
| [39] | Neither mental nor physical health was associated with fruit and vegetable intake (p < 0.05). | Fruit and vegetable consumption may be too specific to represent an individual’s overall diet. | 4 |
| [86] | Depressive symptoms were related to a lower consumption of vegetables/fruit. | Depressive symptoms may affect unhealthy food choices. The relations between negative emotions such as depressive symptoms and food consumption are most likely bidirectional: food consumed affects mood and mood affects food choices. | 6 |
| [87] | The consumption of vegetables is more prevalent among people with low or moderate depression than those with severe depression (p < 0.05). | Unhealthy dietary choices seems to promote depression. Efforts to lower the prevalence of depression in the elderly should target on the factors such as dietary habits. | 6 |
| [88] | In men, attempters (n = 92) had a high odds of low consumption of vegetables (OR 2.47, 95% CI: 1.19–5.15). In women, attempters (n = 275) had a high odds of insufficient fruit consumption (OR 2.36, 95% CI: 1.15–4.85). | The data suggest that fruits and vegetables were significantly under-consumed in adults who had ever attempted suicide. | 6 |
| [89] | For male students, none of the food consumption groups were associated with perceived stress or depressive symptoms. In females, perceived stress and depressive symptoms were associated with less frequent consumption of fruits/vegetables. | Consistent associations were observed between unhealthy food consumption and depressive symptoms and perceived stress among female students from three European countries, but not among male students. Efforts to reduce depressive symptoms and stress among female students may also lead to the consumption of healthier foods and/or vice-versa. | 4 |
| [90] | Single mothers had lower intake of fruits and vegetables and lower self-worth compared to the married and cohabiting mothers, controlling for age, education and BMI. | A lower sense of self-worth and lower intake of fruit and vegetables in single mothers could be seen in the context of the social disadvantages and less social support. | 6 |
| [91] | A high level of dispositional optimism was associated with higher intakes of fruit (p = 0.01), and vegetables (p = 0.01), independently from age, education, living arrangement, self-rated health, cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, cancer, and body mass index, as well as total energy intake. | Dispositional optimism in elderly men is associated with healthy lifestyle and dietary habits. | 7 |
| [92] | Stepwise logistic regression models found that frequency of consumption of fresh fruit had apparently independent effects on perceived stress, whereas the intake level of fresh fruit was significantly associated with depression. | The link between food consumption frequency, perceived stress and depression suggests that diet intervention may be considered a mediate strategy integrated in psychology prevention program among normal population of the college. | 5 |
| [93] | Both women and men above the upper quartile for optimism more often ate fresh vegetables and salads (women 6%/men 57%), berries (23%/9%), fruit (67%/42%), than those below the lower quartile (56%/31%, 14%/5%, and 52%/26%, respectively) with women in higher proportion than in men in each case. | Lack of optimism is associated with a cluster of unhealthy dietary and other habits. | 7 |
| [94] | Women having poor mental health were less likely than their healthier counterparts to report consuming fresh vegetables, fresh fruits on a daily basis. Men having poor mental health reported consuming less frequently fresh fruits. These results remained statistically significant in the fully adjusted model. | The results suggest that poor mental health is associated with unhealthy food habits. | 5 |
| [95] | The mood of females was significantly better when more fruit/vegetables were consumed (F(2,157) = 12.39, p < 0.001). There was no association between the amount consumed by males and scores on the GHQ [F(2,163) = 1.09, NS]. In females a lower intake of fruit/vegetables was associated with higher levels of anxiety (F(2,157) = 8.78, p < 0.002), a relationship not found in males (F(2,163) = 0.29, NS). Females who consumed greater amounts of fruit/vegetables were less depressed [F(2,157) = 12.77, p < 0.0001], although there was no such relationship in males (F(2,163) = 1.23, NS). | Eating large amounts of fruit and vegetables were less likely to be anxious or depressed; the relationship existed irrespective of age and social background. | 4 |
* total score for the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale (NOS) is attributed to a following categories: very high risk of bias (0–3 NOS points), high risk of bias (4–6 NOS points), and low risk of bias (7–9 NOS points) [23].