Table 2.
Toxin production profiles for known Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa species.
| Species | Toxins | Toxicity | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| G. australes | MTX-1, 44-MG | High toxicity by i.p. using the MBA, less by oral administration | Munday et al. 2017 [38] |
| G. balechii | 44-MG | CTX- and MTX-like toxicity using the MBA and the N2a cytotoxicity assay | Fraga et al., 2016 [74]; Pisapia et al., 2017 [23] |
| G. belizeanus | Gambierone, 44-MG | CTX-like toxicity using the N2a cytotoxicity assay; CTX- and MTX-like activity using the Ca2+ flux assay; CTX-like activity using the RBA | Chinain et al. 2010 [19]; Rodriguez et al. 2015 [75]; Lewis et al. 2016 [76]; Litaker et al. 2017 [22]; Boente-Juncal et al. 2019 [77] |
| G. caribaeus | MTX-2, 44-MG | CTX- and MTX-like toxicity using the N2a cytotoxicity assay; CTX- and MTX-like activity using the MBA | Tawong et al. 2016 [78]; Litaker et al. 2017 [22]; Pisapia et al. 2017 [23] |
| G. carolinianus | 44-MG | Extremely low CTX- and MTX-like toxicity using the N2a cytotoxicity and Ca2+ flux assays | Tester et al. 2014 [51]; Lewis et al. 2016 [77]; Litaker et al. 2017 [22]; Pisapia et al. 2017 [23] |
| G. carpenteri | 44-MG* | Low toxicity by i.p. using the MBA, less by oral administration; CTX- and MTX-like toxicity using the N2a cytotoxicity assay; MTX-like activity using the Ca2+ flux assay |
Munday et al. 2017 [38]; Litaker et al. 2017 [22]; Pisapia et al. 2017 [23]; Larsson et al. 2018 [26] |
| G. cheloniae | 44-MG | High toxicity by i.p. using the MBA, less by oral administration | Smith et al. 2016 [44]; Munday et al. 2017 [38] |
| G. excentricus | MTX-2, MTX-4, 44-MG | High CTX- and MTX-like toxicity using the N2a cytotoxicity and Ca2+ flux assays | Fraga et al. 2011 [21]; Pisapia et al. 2017 [23] |
| G. holmesii | 44-MG | CTX- and MTX-like activity using the Ca2+ flux assay | Larsson et al. 2018 [26]; Kretzschmar et al. 2019 [79] |
| G. honu | 44-MG | High toxicity by i.p. using the MBA, less by oral administration | Munday et al. 2017 [38]; Rhodes et al. 2017 [39] |
| G. jejuensis | Unknown | Unknown (non-toxic by i.p. using MBA) | Nishimura et al. 2014 [64] |
| G. lapillus | 44-MG | CTX- and MTX-like activity using the Ca2+ flux assay | Kretzschmar et al. 2017 [60]; Larsson et al. 2018 [26] |
| G. lewisii | 44-MG | CTX- and MTX-like activity using the Ca2+ flux assay | Larsson et al. 2018 26]; Kretzschmar et al. 2019 [79] |
| G. pacificus | 44-MG, MTX-2 | High toxicity by i.p. using the MBA, less by oral administration, CTX- and MTX-like activity using the N2a cytotoxicity assay |
Munday et al. 2017 [38]; Pisapia et al. 2017 [23] |
| G. polynesiensis | P-CTX-3B *, P-CTX-3C *, P-CTX-4A *, P-CTX-4B *, P-CTX-3B/C isomers *, P-CTX-4A/B isomers *, 44-MG | Highly toxic by both i.p. and oral administration using the MBA | Rhodes et al. 2014 [33]; Munday et al. 2017 [38]; Rhodes et al. 2017 [12]; Chinain et al. 2010 [19] |
| G. scabrosus | 44-MG | CTX- and MTX-like toxicity using the MBA and N2a cytotoxicity assay | Nishimura et al. 2014 [64,80]; Pisapia et al. 2017 [23] |
| G. silvae | 44-MG | CTX- and MTX-like toxicity using the N2a cytotoxicity assay | Litaker et al. 2017 [22]; Pisapia et al. 2017 [23] |
| G. toxicus † | P-CTX-3C, P-CTX-4A/B, 44-MG, Gambieric acids A, B, C, and D, Gambieroxide, Gambierol, MTX-1, MTX-2 | CTX- and MTX-like toxicity using the N2a cytotoxicity and RBA assays; MTX-like activity using the MBA |
Holmes et al. 1990 [81]; Nagai et al. 1992 [82]; Satake et al. 1993 [83]; Watanabe et al. 2013 [84]; Pisapia et al. 2017 [23] |
| F. paulensis | 44-MG | Low toxicity by i.p. using the MBA, extremely low by gavage | Rhodes et al. 2014 [32]; Munday et al. 2017 [38] |
| F. ruetzleri | 44-MG * | CTX-like toxicity using the N2a cytotoxicity, Ca2+ flux and brine shrimp assays | Tester et al. 2014 [51]; Litaker et al. 2017 [22]; Leung et al. 2018 [85] |
| F. yasumotoi | Unknown | MTX-like activity using the MBA | Holmes 1998 [86] |
| Fukuyoa sp. HK Type 1 | 44-MG | Activity using the brine shrimp bioassay | Leung et al. 2018 [85] |
i.p: intraperitoneal injection; MBA: mouse bioassay; RBA: receptor binding assay; N2a: neuro-2 mouse neuroblastoma assay; CTX: ciguatoxin; MTX: maitotoxin; 44-MG: 44-methylgambierone; *: toxins asterisked were not produced by all strains of these species. † Gambierdiscus toxicus was reclassified in 2009 by Litaker et al. [36], therefore toxins published from this species may differ from that reported prior to that time.