Table 2.
Natural gum-based biomaterials for tissue engineering applications.
| Constituting Materials | Engineering of Tissue Type | Cell Type | Remarks | References | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gum Type | Other Materials and Biomolecules | ||||
| AcG | Crosslinked polyacrylic acid polymer (carbopol), N-vinylpyrollidone (NVP), Moxifloxacin, Glutaraldehyde (GA) | Skin wound tissue | Inflammatory cells | Non-haemolytic, antioxidant, and mucoadhesive in nature | [187] |
| AcG | SA, ZnONPs, and Glutaraldehyde (crosslinker) | Skin wound tissue | Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and Sheep fibroblast cells | Significant reduction in toxicity to cells, while maintaining antibacterial and healing effect. Low doses of ZnONPs are beneficial and may reduce undesirable side effects | [188] |
| AlG | Commercial cream formulation and/or Oligosaccharide (OAG) | Dermal wound healing | Host epithelial cells (skin keratinocytes and fibroblasts) | OAG alone or supplemented to cream formulation exhibits acceleration of wound healing, by promoting neo-blood vessels and collagen | [189] |
| ArG | HAp urea-formaldehyde (crosslinker) |
Bone tissue | C2C12 cells | Scaffolds with 40%–50% of HAp showed highest mechanical properties and supported enhanced biomineralization | [156] |
| ArG | CS, gelatin, PVA, glutaraldehyde (crosslinker) | Skin tissue | KP-hMSCs | Enhanced mechanical properties and cytocompatibility | [184] |
| ArG | PCL and Zein | Skin tissue | L929 fibroblast cells | Enhanced mechanical and good antibacterial properties with favorable cell viability | [185] |
| ArG | PCL, Zein, C. officinalis | Skin tissue | L929 fibroblast cells | Desirable mechanical properties, gradual and controlled release of C. officinalis, and better antibacterial and cell viability than PCL/Zein/ArG scaffolds | [186] |
| ArG | Alg and Recombinant human MG53 protein (rhMG53) | Dermal wound healing | Provided micro-/nanoscale structure, adhesion characteristics, and tunable properties for quick and sustained delivery of rhMG53 | [190] | |
| CG | PVA and trypsin | Wound healing | Human PDL fibroblast cell | No cytotoxicity was observed for cells and became bioactive by the immobilization of trypsin | [191] |
| CGG | Whitlockite (Ca18Mg2(HPO4)2(PO4)12) NPs and dimethyloxallylglycine (an angiogenic drug) | Bone tissue | human umbilical vein endothelial cells | Enhanced in vitro osteogenesis and angiogenesis | [63] |
| GaTG | Gelatin | Wound and tissue engineering | Rat mesenchymal stem cells (rMSCs) | Enhanced mechanical properties and good cell adhesion with no cytotoxicity | [225] |
| GeG | ALP, PDA | Bone tissue | MC3T3-E1 cells (osteoblastic cells) | Enhanced ALP-mediated enzymatic mineralization of GeG by the PDA functionalization | [158] |
| GeG | ALP | Bone tissue | MC3T3-E1 cells and RAW 264.7 monocytic cells | Enhanced osteoblast cell adhesion nd proliferation on hydrogels with Mg-loaded mineral (i.e., mineralized in B–E media) | [159] |
| GeG | CS, PEG, and APN | Wound healing | Enhanced biocompatibility, entrapment and sustained release of drug, moist nature and antioxidant property | [192] | |
| GeG | HAp | Bone tissue | hASCs | Enhanced mechanical properties, sustained degradation, and cell adhesion and proliferation | [157] |
| GeG | HAp | Osteochondral tissue | Mouse lung L929 fibroblast cells | Provided temporary load while neotissue formation, good in vivo integration with surrounding tissues and supporting formation of cartilage and bone-like tissue | [183] |
| GeG | SF and MicroRNAs | Articulate cartilage tissue | BMSCs | Effective and suitable for cell growth and nutrients perfusion; BMSCs-loaded hydrogel transfected with miR-30a promote chondrogenesis of BMSCs with up-regulation of cartilage specific gene | [182] |
| GeGMA | GelMA | Cartilage tissue | NIH3T3 fibroblast cells | High mechanical strength and cytocompatibility | [175] |
| GeG | Cartilage tissue | Human nasal chondrocyte cells | High cell entrapment with homogenous distribution, good viscoelastic properties and cytocompatibility | [176] | |
| Oxidized-GeG | CMCS | Cartilage tissue | Chondrocyte cells | Enhanced gelation temperature, mechanical properties, and cell viability | [178] |
| iGeG-MA | FF-Gen3K(WHLPFKC)16 | Enhanced anti-angiogenesis potential in vitro and in vivo | [179] | ||
| GeG-MA | PEG-DMA, sulindac, and vitamin B12 | Cartilage tissue | Human fibroblast cells (WI-38 cells) | Better mechanical properties and in vivo cytocompatibility, tunable release of small molecule, whereas no significant difference with large molecules | [180] |
| GeG | Musculoskeletal tissues/fibrocartilage tissue | Low acyl-GeG (2% w/v) was found most suitable for cell encapsulation with appropriate mechanics, gelling temperature, and degradation properties | [181] | ||
| GeG | GO | Good fracture strength and strain, tensile modulus, and biocompatibility | [214] | ||
| GeG | Wound dressing and cartilage tissue | Scaffolds with high surface area to mass ratio and high degradation, improvement in mechanical properties after degradation in SBF | [217] | ||
| GeG | PVA | Not specified | Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) | Good stability in aqueous medium and good cell attachment and growth | [218] |
| GeG | GelMA, PCL, alginate | Not specified | BMSCs | Highly complex structures were achieved; fabrication and sacrificing process did not affect cell viability | [219] |
| GeGMA | GelMA | NIH3T3 fibroblast cells | 3D constructs with tunable microporosity capable of directing cellular responses at millimeter scale (e.g., anisotropic outgrowth) | [213] | |
| GeGMA | Collagen | Vasculogenic differentiation | Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) | Effectively promoted BMSCs to differentiate into endothelial cells | [220] |
| GeGMA | Tissue engineering (not specified) | NIH-3T3 fibroblast cells | Highly tunable degradation and mechanical properties as well as high cell viability | [185] | |
| GeG | Peptides | Soft tissue engineering (not specified) | Human adipose stem cells (hASCs), dermal microvascular endothelial cells (hDMECs) and keratinocytes (hKC) from human adult skin and human osteoblast-like cells SaOs-2 | Enhanced mechanical properties and flexibility, cell-adhesiveness of spongy-like hydrogels due to pre-incubation with cell-adhesive protein | [215] |
| GeGMA | PBS | Intervertebral discs (IVDs) regeneration | Rat lung fibroblast L929 cells | Enhanced mechanical, degradation, and water uptake properties with good cytocompatibility | [162] |
| GeG | BG | Bone tissue | Rat mesenchymal stem cells (rMSCs) | The incorporation of BG promoted mineralizability and antibacterial properties and differentiation of rMSCs depending on BG-type | [160] |
| GeG | BG | Bone tissue | Human adipose-derived stem cells (ADMSCs) | Good apatite-forming ability, improved mechanical properties, and cell viability | [161] |
| GeG | Glycerol and HNTs | Dermal tissue (soft tissue) | Human dermal fibroblast (NHDF-Neo) cells | Tuneable mechanical properties (compressive modulus: 20–75 kPa) and high metabolic activities of cells on 25% HNT loaded-GeG/Gly hydrogels | [120] |
| GeG | HA and cellular mediators (adipose tissue cells) | Skin tissue | Human microvascular endothelial cells (hAMECs) | Fast wound closure and re-epithelialization, a distinct dermal matrix remodeling, and improved neovascularization was observed | [194] |
| GeG | HA, Ca2+ | Wound tissue | Epidermal and dermal cellular fractions (Keratinocytes, fibroblasts, endothelial cells) | Accelerated rate of wound closure and re-epithelialization, including tissue neovascularization | [193] |
| GeG | EDC | Wound healing | Fibroblast (L929) cells | High reduction in wound size (%) and collagen content | [195] |
| GeG | Neural tissue | Primary cortical neural cells | Successful printing of complex, layered, and viable 3D cell structures (i.e., brain-like structures) | [211] | |
| GeG | Bioamines (SPD, SPM) and peptide (RGD) | Neural tissue engineering | Human pluripotent stem cell-derived neuronal cells (hPSCs) | Properties mimicking naïve rabbit brain tissue under relevant physiological stress and strain; cell type-specific behavior after functionalization with laminin | [210] |
| GuG | GMA | Common tissue | Human endothelial cell line (EA.hy926) | Excellent endothelial cell viability | [224] |
| GeG | PEG | ARPE-19 cell | Promotion of retinal regeneration compared to only GeG and 3 wt.% PEG-GeG could be applied as an alternative for retinal regeneration | [205] | |
| PHGuG | Wound tissue | Young adult mouse colonic (YAMC) epithelial cells | Promotion of colonic epithelial cell wound healing through RhoA activation that occurs downstream of ERK1/2 activation | [196] | |
| GuG | SPI | Bone | Significant improvement of bond strength of SPI adhesives onto porcine bones | [163] | |
| CMGuG | Ethylenediamine, fish collagen, and Ceftazidime drug | Wound healing | NIH3T3 fibroblast cells | Enhanced biocompatibility and antibacterial properties; release of 90–95% Ceftazidime from film after 96 h of incubation at physiological pH | [197] |
| TaG | Gelatin, CNTs, and salicylic acid | Wound, tissue, and drug delivery | Human keratinocyte (HaCaT) cells | Enhanced mechanical stability, diffusion-mediated drug release, and cytocompatibility | [226] |
| GT | Bone tissue | Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs) | Supporting and the acceleration of adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation of stem cells | [164] | |
| GT | PVA, glutaraldehyde (crosslinker) | Wound healing | human fibroblast AGO cells | Good antibacterial properties against Gram-negative bacteria and cell adhesion and proliferation | [137] |
| GT | PCL, Cur | Wound healing | Mesenchyme stem cells (MSCs) | Enhanced mechanical properties, sustained release of Cur up to 20 days, and cell adhesion and proliferation for PCL-GT-Cur3%; and significantly fast wound closure with well-formed granulation tissue | [138,139] |
| GT | Good antibacterial and mechanical properties with suitable biocompatibility and hydrophilic nature | [140] | |||
| GT | PVA, SA, and Moxifloxacin drug | Wound dressing | Good biocompatibility with impermeability to microbes and the release of drug via non-Fickian mechanism; best fitting in the Hixson–Crowell model | [198] | |
| GT | Aloe vera extract, Al3+ as crosslinker | Wound healing | Human fibroblast cells | Excellent wound healing behavior with significant migration rate of fibroblast cells | [199] |
| GT | Acrylamide, Terminalia chebula (TC), AgNPs | Wound healing | Good antibacterial properties against both B. subtilis and E. coli bacteria | [200] | |
| GT | PLLA | Nerve tissue engineering | Nerve cell (PC12) | Enhanced mechanical properties, cell viability, neurite outgrowth and better cellular phenotype | [212] |
| XG | Osteoarthritis | ADMSCs | ADMSCs with XG reduced pain associated with osteoarthritis | [168] | |
| XG | Articular cartilage | Chondrocyte cells | XG significantly reversed SNP-reduced cell proliferation and prevented cell early apoptosis rate in a dose-dependent manner | [170] | |
| XG | HAp | Bone tissue | Change in microstructure of gel by mineralization process and enhanced mechanical properties | [44] | |
| XG | BG, CNCs, Borax | Bone tissue | MC3T3-E1 osteoblast cells | Enhanced mechanical properties and cytocompatibility | [165] |
| XG | SA, HNTs, and CNCs | Bone tissue | MC3T3-E1 osteoblast cells | Enhanced rheological and mechanical properties as well as cytocompatibility | [166] |
| MWXG | Articular cartilage | Prepared injection of high transparency with low protein and free of endotoxin; significantly protects joint cartilage | [171] | ||
| LWXG | Articular cartilage | Rabbit articular chondrocytes | Promoted cell proliferation as well as decreased chondrocyte apoptosis through down-regulation of the protein levels of caspases-3 and bax, and up-regulation of the protein level of bcl-2 in cartilage (in vitro and in vivo) | [173] | |
| XG | GeG/HA | Skeletal muscle tissue (tendon) | Decreased tendon adhesion without reducing tendon strength, rapid swelling, slow degradation, and rapid and close blanketing onto tendon tissue | [174] | |
| XG | CS and Chlorhexidine (CHX) | Wound healing | Human dermal fibroblast cells | Good viscoplastic behavior, cytocompatibility, non-Fickian diffusion mechanism of CHX release in vitro and selective antibacterial behavior against P. gingivalis | [203] |
| XG | CS and HNTs | Not specified | MC3T3-E1 osteoblast cells | Excellent mechanical properties with good cell viability (in vitro) | [221] |
| XG | CS, Fe3O4 MNPs, GDL | Multiple tissues | NIH3T3 fibroblast cell | Enhanced rheological and mechanical properties as well as cytocompatibility | [222] |
| LBG | Tissue engineering (not specified) | Mouse embryonic stem cell (ESCs) | Coating of LBG promoted mouse ESCs growth in an undifferentiated state | [227] | |
| BFG | HAp | Bone tissue | Osteoblast MG-63 cells | Enhancement in mechanical properties, protein adsorption, antibacterial behavior, cell viability and osteogenic differentiation | [167] |