Table 1.
The impact of divalent ions on the performance of RED under low and high feed salinity conditions.
| LCC (M) | HCC (M) | Membranes | (%) | Rstack | Pd, max (W/m2) | OCV (V) | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| NaCl: 0.025 | NaCl: 0.75 | PC-SK and PC-SA | 84 | 69.9 Ωcm2 | 0.32 | 1.393 | [34] |
| 1 BW: Na+ (0.024), Cl− (0.032), SO42− (0.002), Ca2+ (0.00) Mg2+ (0.001), K+ (0.000) | 2 SW: Na+ (0.390), Cl− (0.578), SO42− (0.024), Ca2+ (0.027) Mg2+ (0.03), K+ (0.006) | 67 | 86.5 Ωcm2 | 0.11 | 0.926 | ||
| 3 RW: Na+ (0.004), Cl− (0.008), SO42− (0.000), Ca2+ (0.000) Mg2+ (0.000), K+ (0.000) | 4 SW: Na+ (0.39), Cl− (0.578), SO42− (0.024), Ca2+ (0.027) Mg2+ (0.03), K+ (0.006) | 72 | 150 Ωcm2 | 0.17 | 1.49 | ||
| 5 GW: Na+ (0.059), Cl− (0.093), SO42− (0.003), Ca2+ (0.001), Mg2+ (0.003), K+ (0.002) | 6 RO: Na+ (0.269), Cl− (0.409), SO42− (0.009), Ca2+ (0.004) Mg2+ (0.015), K+ (0.004) | 78 | 46.7 Ωcm2 | 0.07 | 0.53 | ||
| NaCl (0.1) | NaCl (0.5) | Fuji-AEM-80045 and Fuji-CEM-80050 | 96 | 4.59 Ωcm2 | - | - | [32] |
| NaCl (0.5) | NaCl (4) | 99 | 5.68 Ωcm2 | 0.96 | 1.71 | ||
| NaCl (0.1) | NaCl (5) | 89 | 7.58 Ωcm2 | 1.95 | 3.02 | ||
| NaCl (0.340) + MgCl2 (0.054) | NaCl (2.716) + MgCl2 (0.428) | 56 | 17.3 Ωcm2 | 0.67 | 1.47 | ||
| NaCl (0.473) + MgCl2 (0.014) | NaCl (3.78) + MgCl2 (0.11) | 63 | 8.58 Ωcm2 | 0.76 | 1.64 | ||
| NaCl (0.083) + MgCl2 (0.017) | NaCl (2.708) + MgCl2 (1.458) | 33 | 54.2 Ωcm2 | 0.60 | 1.32 | ||
| NaCl (0.03) | Brine : NaCl (5) + 2–3% Non-NaCl ions | Fujifilm AEM RP1 80045-01and Fujifilm CEM RP1 80050-04 | 90 | - | 2.7 | - | [33] |
| BW: NaCl (0.03) + K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, SO42− | Brine: NaCl (4–5) + K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, SO42− | 90 | - | 1.6 | - | ||
| BW: NaCl (0.1) | Brine; NaCl (5) | Fujifilm-AEM- 80045 and Fujifilm-CEM- 80050 | - | 3.83 Ω | 3.04 | 3.4 | [9] |
| BW Na+ (0.066), Cl− (1), SO42− (0.0035), Ca2+ (0.003) Mg2+ (0.0014), K+ (0.001), HCO3− (8.3 × 10−6) | Exhaust brine: Na+ (2.9), Cl− (4.8), SO42− (0.67), Ca2+ (0.006) Mg2+ (1.6), K+ (0.2), HCO3− (0.0008) | - | 6.76 Ω | 1.13 | 2.77 | ||
| NaCl: (0.0999975) + NaHCO3 (8.5 × 10−6), [Cl−]/[HCO3−] = 11,717 | NaCl: (4.99915) + NaHCO3 (8.5 × 10−4), [Cl−]/[HCO3−] = 5841 | - | 3.79 Ω | 3.03 | 3.39 | ||
| NaCl: (0.098) + KCl (0.002), [Na+]/[K+] = 52.1 | NaCl: (4.68) + KCl (0.32), [Na+]/[K+] = 14.5 | - | 4.08 Ω | 2.84 | 3.4 | ||
| NaCl: (0.096) + CaCl2 (0.004), [Na+]/[Ca2+] = 26.4 | NaCl: (4.99) + CaCl2 (0.01), [Na+]/[Ca2+] = 474 | - | 3.84 Ω | 2.84 | 3.27 | ||
| NaCl: (0.0966) + Na2SO4 (0.0034), [Na+]/[SO42−] = 28.8 | NaCl: (4.39) + Na2SO4 (0.61), [Na+]/[SO42−] = 7.15 | - | 4.15 Ω | 2.79 | 3.40 | ||
| NaCl: (0.083) + MgCl2 (0.017), [Na+]/[Mg2+] = 4.99 | NaCl: (3.25) + MgCl2 (1.75), [Na+]/[Mg2+] = 1.86 | - | 6.69 Ω | 1.11 | 2.73 | ||
| NaCl (0.5) | NaCl: (4) | Fujifilm-AEM- 80045 and Fujifilm-CEM- 80050 | - | 2.78 Ω | 1.06 | 1.70 | [5] |
| NaCl (0.45) + MgCl2 (0.05) | NaCl (3.60) + MgCl2 (0.40) | - | 4.44 Ω | 0.43 | 1.36 | ||
| NaCl (0.40) + MgCl2 (0.10) | NaCl (3.2) + MgCl2 (0.80) | - | 4.67 Ω | 0.36 | 1.3 | ||
| NaCl (0.30) + MgCl2 (0.20) | NaCl (2.40) + MgCl2 (1.6) | - | 5.11 Ω | 0.32 | 1.29 | ||
| NaCl (0.20) + MgCl2 (0.30) | NaCl (1.60) + MgCl2 (2.40) | - | 6.38 Ω | 0.21 | 1.15 | ||
| MgCl2 (0.50) | MgCl2 (4) | - | 8.92 Ω | 0.06 | 0.72 | ||
| RW: Na+ (0.001), Cl− (0.0005) | SW: Na+ (0.78), Cl− (0.59) | Fujifilm-AEM- 80045 and Fujifilm-CEM- 80050 | 68 | 12.8 Ω | 1.41 | 4.09 | [6] |
| RW: Na+ (0.001), Cl− (0.0005), K+ (0.0001), Mg2+ (0.001), Ca2+ (0.0038), SO42− (0.0001) | SW: Na+ (0.78), Cl− (0.59), K+ (0.017), Mg2+ (0.088), Ca2+ (0.01), SO42− (0.027) | 68 | 30.5 Ω | 0.46 | 3.68 | ||
| RW: NaCl (0.017) | SW: NaCl (0.513) | Fujifilm-CEM-Type I and Fujifilm-AEM- type I | - | 1.9 Ωcm2 | - | - | [38] |
| RW: NaCl (0.017) | SW: NaCl (0.4617 + 0.02565 (MgCl2) | - | 2.77 Ωcm2 | - | - | ||
| RW: NaCl (0.017) | SW: NaCl (0.4617 + 0.02565 (CaCl2) | - | 3.29 Ωcm2 | - | - | ||
| RW: NaCl (0.017) | SW: NaCl (0.4617 + 0.02565 (BaCl2) | - | 3.8 Ωcm2 | - | - | ||
| RW: NaCl (0.017) | SW: NaCl (0.5) | Fujifilm Type I AEM and homogeneous T0 CEM | - | - | - | 1 | [26] |
| RW: NaCl (0.0153) + MgCl2 (0.0017) | SW: NaCl (0.5) | - | - | - | 0.966 | ||
| RW: NaCl (0.0153) + MgCl2 (0.0017) | RW NaCl (0.45) + MgCl2 (0.05) | - | - | - | 0.925 | ||
| Pure NaCl: (0.5) | Pure NaCl (4) | Fujifilm-CEM T1 | 87–91 | 1.69 Ω/cm2 | 1 | 0.21 | [39] |
| NaCl (0.35) + MgCl2 (0.15) | NaCl (2.8) + MgCl2 (1.2) | - | - | 0.41 | 0.15 | ||
| Pure: NaCl: (0.008) | Pure: NaCl (0.5) | Fumatech-AEM-FKS-50 and Fumatech-CEM-FAS-50 | 0.92–0.96 | - | 1.6 | - | [35] |
| RW: Na+ (0.008), Mg2+ (0.0014), Ca2+ (0.0014), SO42− (0.00026) | RW: Na+ (0.5), Mg2+ (0.056), Ca2+ (0.009), SO42− (0.03) | 0.92–0.96 | - | 1.42 | - |
1 BW: Brackish water; 2 SW: Seawater; 3 RW: River water; 4 SW: Seawater; 5 GW: Groundwater; 6 RO: Reverse osmosis.