Table 2.
Effects of Regular Exercise on Redox Status.
| Exercise Type | Study Subjects | Training Protocol | Findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| RE training (12 weeks) |
Male F344 rats (n = 12, 2 groups) Sedentary/control (C, n = 6) Climbing exercise group (RT, n = 6) |
Progressive RE protocol: Climbing a ladder 135 cm length (grid step 2.5 cm, grade 60 degree) Weight load attached to their tails. 1st circle 50% of their body weight (Bw) → 2 min rest 2nd circle 75% of their Bw → 2 min rest 3rd circle 90% of their Bw → 2 min rest 4th circle 100% of their Bw → 2 min rest 5th circle 100% + 30 g of their Bw → 2 min rest Training was stopped when rats refused to climb. |
Aortic rings under 40× and 200× magnification: no significant difference between groups. In the aorta of rats: ↑ eNOS and AKT phosphorylation in RT group ↑ MnSOD and Redox factor-1 in RT group ↓ FOXO1 phosphorylation in RT group |
Li et al., 2015 [61] |
| CVE training (8 weeks) |
Sprague Dawley rats (n = 60, 4 groups) Sh = Sham sedentary group Sh + ex = sham with exercise OVX = ovariectomized sedentary group OVX + ex = ovariectomized with exercise group |
Exercise groups (Sh = ex, OVX + ex) performed CVE training: Running 15 min/day for the 1st week and 60 min/day at 18 m/min for 7 weeks. | Effects of exercise on: ↑ CSE expression in myocardium in OVX + ex group Anti-oxidative defense in myocardium: ↑ TAC in OVX + ex group CAT & SOD → not change in OVX + ex group ↓ CAT & SOD in sham + ex group Oxidative stress markers in myocardium: ↓ MDA level in OVX + ex group |
Tang et al., 2016 [65] |
| RE training (6 weeks) |
Healthy young individuals (n = 32, 2 groups): African Americans (AA, n = 14) Caucasian (Cau, n = 18) |
Moderate RE training: 3 sessions/week, 60 min/session 2-way body part split: legs, back and biceps on one day; chest, shoulder and triceps on a separate day. |
↑ Strength in both groups ↓ blood pressure in Cau ↔ blood pressure in AA ↓ MMP-9 in AA ↔ MMP-9 in Cau ↓ 8-isoprostane (8-IsoP) in AA ↔ IL-10, TNF-a, sVCAM-1, MMP-2 |
Cook et al., 2013 [91] |
| CVE training (12 weeks) |
Spontaneously hypertensive rats | 12 weeks, 5 days/week, 60 min/session, 55–65% max running speed | ↓ oxidative stress ↑ NO bioavailability ↓ blood pressure Improve mechanical and functional alterations of the coronary and small mesenteric arteries |
Roque et al., 2013 [94] |
| CVE training (4 weeks) |
Wistar rats (n = 80, 8 groups) CS = control + sedentary, CE = control + exercise, CSQ = control + sedentary + quercetin, CEQ = control + exercise + quercetin, DS = diabetes + sedentary, DE = diabetes + exercise, DSQ = diabetes + sedentary + quercetin, DEQ = diabetes + exercise + quercetin. |
CE, CEQ, DE & DEQ performed moderate chronic aerobic exercise (swimming) 1 h/day, 5 days/week. | ↓ MDA & PC levels in aortic tissue in exercises group ↑ SOD & CAT in aortic tissue in exercises groups ↓ NOx levels in aortic tissue in exercises group ↓ iNOx levels in aortic tissue in exercises group |
Chis et al., 2015 [183] |
| CVE training (9 weeks) |
Male Wistar rats (4 groups): Sedentary Control (C, n = 14) Exercise control (C-Ex, n = 15) Sedentary diabetes (DM-C n = 25) Exercise diabetes (DM-Ex, n = 25) |
Low intensity physical exercise training: Running duration 18 min/day, Speed 11 m/min, 5 days/week |
Lipid hydroperoxide: in DM-C > C and DM-Ex SOD and Catalase: DM-Ex > DM-C > C Glutathione peroxidase: DM-C < C and DM-Ex |
Gimenes et al., 2015 [184] |
| CVE training (8 weeks, Swimming) |
Rats (4 groups): 20 Healthy rats sedentary(H): 5 Healthy + Exercise (H + Ex): 5 High fat Diet sedentary (HFD): 5 High fat Diet + EX (HFD + Ex): 5 |
H+Ex and HFD+Ex group: 1-h Moderate intensity swimming for 8 weeks |
H group: ↔ MDA in heart tissue, LOX-1 protein → expressed in heart cells H + Ex group: ↔ MDA, ↓ gene expression of LOX-1 receptor HFD group: ↑MDA, ↑ gene expression of LOX-1 receptor HFD+Ex group: ↓ MDA, ↓ gene expression of LOX-1 receptor |
Riahi et al., 2015 [185] |
| CVE training (8 weeks) |
Adult rats | 8 weeks, 5 days/week, 60 min/session, 60% max running speed | ↑ running distance ↑ antioxidant defense system ↑ superoxide dismutase (SOD) |
Coelho et al., 2013 [186] |
| CVE training (6 weeks) |
Male Wistar rats (4 groups): 28 C = Control group (n = 7) EX = Exercise group (n = 7) D = Diabetes group(n = 7) EX + D = Exercise + Diabetes (n = 7) |
Ex group and EX + D group: Free access to running wheel 24 h/day for 6 weeks |
↓ MDA ↑ SOD, GPx, TAC |
Naderi et al., 2015 [187] |
| CVE training (10 days) |
Sprague-Dawley rats (2 groups): Sedentary (SED) Endurance training group (Ex) |
Exercise group: moderate intensity treadmill training Running duration 60/day Intensity 30 m/min (70% max oxygen consumption) |
24 h after the final training ↔ 4-hydroxynonenal conjugated proteins (4-HNE) in both groups ↑ SOD2 ↑ CAT |
Holland et al., 2015 [188] |
| CVE training (24 weeks) |
Healthy older individuals (n = 100, 2 groups) C = control group (n = 50) EX = exercise group (n = 50) |
Moderate CVE: 45–60 min on treadmill, bicycle or Stair master, intensity 60–70% of HRmax, 3days/week. |
↓ MDA & 8-OHdG ↑ TAC ↓ hs-CRP Significant correlation between oxidative stress markers and hs-CRP |
Alghadir et al., 2016 [190] |
| CVE training (16 weeks) |
Women | 16 weeks, 5 days/week, 30 min/session, 80–85% HRmax | ↔ Body weight & BMI, ↑ aerobic fitness ↓ systemic oxidative stress only in women with the highest quartile of plasma F2-isoprostanes at baseline (≥57 pg/mL) |
Arikawa et al., 2013 [191] |
| RE training (24 weeks) |
Untrained healthy individuals (n = 49, age = 60–72, 4 groups) Control normal weight group (no exercise, Cn) Control obese group (no exercise, Co) Exercise normal weight group (REN group) Exercise obese group (REO group) |
REN & REO group performed moderate RE program: One set of 13 exercises × 8–13 reps (50–80% of 1RM) 3 days/week |
↑ muscle strength, VO2max in REN & REO group ↔ total cholesterol and HDL-C ↓ Lipid hydroperoxides and TBARS (REN & REO < Cn & Co) Homocysteine in plasma: REN & REO < Cn & Co |
Vincent et al., 2006 [195] |
| RE training (12 weeks) |
elderly men | 12 weeks, 3 sessions/week, 3 sets × 10 repetitions each of leg press and leg extension (50–80% 1 RM) | ↑ muscle antioxidant capacity (82.5% catalase activity, 75% CuZnSOD activity) | Parise et al., 2005 [196] |
| RE training (6 weeks) |
Young men | 6 weeks, 3 days/week 2 groups: Hypertrophy-intensity group (3 × 12 rep. ~70% of 1 RM) strength-intensity group (six exercises of 3 sets × 6 rep. ~85% of 1 RM) |
In both groups: ↓ MDA ↑ GSH |
Cakir-Atabek et al., 2010 [197] |
| RE training (12 weeks) |
Older adults (n = 19, age ≥ 60 years, 2 groups) Control group (C, n = 8) RT group (RT, n = 11) |
RT group performed: Supervised RT 3 days/week 3 upper body exercises 4 lower body exercises 1 set × 8–12 reps each exercise to volitional fatigue Muscle biopsies: pre, 48 h post, after the last RE session at 3 & 12 weeks. |
↑ Muscle strength ↔ Pyruvate oxidation, acid soluble metabolites and total fatty acid oxidation |
Flack et al., 2016 [198] |
| RE training (4–16 weeks) |
Wistar male rats (n = 10, 3 groups) Sedentary–Control (C group) Exercise-1 (4 weeks training, RE-1 group) Exercise-2 (16 weeks training, RE-2 group) |
Regular RE in a squat training device cylinder 4 sets × 12 reps/day, 90 min rest between each set, 5 days/week |
Heart tissue: ↑ GPX only in RE-2 group ↑ MDA only in RE-1 group SOD → no changes Cell damage enzymes: ↑ LDH & CK → only in RE-1 group |
Ghiasi et al., 2015 [199] |
| CVE training RE training Combined training (CT) (8 weeks) |
Untrained men 3 groups: CVE: n = 10 RE: n = 10 CT: n = 10 |
CVE: incremental running up to 80% of max HR RE: incremental RE beginning load 50% up to 80% of 1 RM CT: Combination CVE and RE every other day during the week |
In all three training groups: ↑ SOD, erythrocyte GPx, TAC ↓ MDA No significant difference in the interaction of time and group between variables of SOD and GPx enzymes and TAC of plasma and MDA. |
Azizbeigi et al., 2014 [200] |
| Combined exercise training (16 weeks) |
Healthy men (40–74 years, 2 groups): C = control group (n = 26, no exercise, age: 52 ± 9) Ex = exercise group (n = 31, age: 58 ± 10) |
Ex group performed moderate combine exercise training: 3 days/week, 60–75 min/session consisted of: CVE: 25–30 min/session (75% of HRR) RE:30–35 min/session (65–75% of 1 RM, 10–15 reps × 3 sets, bench press, leg press, leg curl, leg extension, latissimus, abdominals, arm flexion) Stretching & cool down: 5–10 min. |
↓ MDA ↑ TAC ↓ DNA strand breaks ↓ oxidative DNA damage (FPG-sensitive sites) ↔ DNA repair capacity (8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase) |
Soares et al., 2015 [201] |
| CVE vs. RE vs. flexibility training (12 months) |
Healthy Male subjects and with type 2 diabetes mellitus (3 groups): 30 Healthy group (H) Control group (CT2MD) Training group(ExT2MD) |
ExT2MD group: moderate CVE (cycling progressively increase 15 min to 35 min per session), RE (major muscle groups × 3 sets × 12 rep) and flexibility (Static stretching) training (total 140–270 min/week, gradually increased) |
ExT2MD group: ↓ oxPAPC compared with T2MD group, ↑ oxPAPC compared with Healthy group T2MD group: ↑↑ oxPAPC compared with Healthy group |
Vinetti et al., 2015 [202] |
| CVE training | Postmenopausal women | Compared physical active with sedentary subjects, on oxidative stress markers. | ↑ oxidative stress markers in sedentary versus active women | Bartfay, W. & Bartfay, E., 2014 [203] |
| CVE training | Elderly men | Compared physical active with sedentary subjects, on oxidative stress markers, after an incremental exercise test | Low intensity aerobic exercise prevent the decline of antioxidants linked with aging | Bouzid et al., 2014 [178] |
| CVE training (12 weeks) |
Rheumatoid arthritis patients | 3 months, 3 sessions/week, 30–40 min/session, 70% VO2 max | ↔ Markers of oxidative stress ↓ 3-Nitrotyrosine ↓disease activity |
Wadley et al., 2014 [204] |
| CVE training (16 weeks) |
Obese & Type 2 Diabetes men | 16 weeks, 3 sessions/week, 2 groups: a) low intensity (30–40% VO2max) b) moderate intensity (55–65% VO2max) |
↔ Body composition and aerobic fitness Improve oxidative stress markers especially when performed moderate intensity protocol. |
Krause et al., 2014 [205] |
| Combined CVE and RE training (6 weeks) |
Women with metabolic syndrome | 6 weeks, 3 sessions/week, 60 min/session CVE and RE | ↓ indicators of oxidative stress, arterial pressure levels, pulse pressure and the Augmentation Index ↑ cardiovascular fitness |
Eleuterio-Silva et al., 2013 [206] |
| RE training (8 weeks) |
Men | Progressive RE-training 8 RE on nonconsecutive days for 8 weeks at 50% of 1RM and reached 80% 1RM by Week 8 |
↑ SOD ↓ MDA ↔ erythrocyte GPx & TAC levels |
Azizbeigi et al., 2013 [207] |
| RE training (8 weeks) |
Men | moderate (MR) and high resistance (HR) training | ↑ SOD activity in MR (p = 0.026) and HR (p = 0.044) groups. ↑ GPX activity in HR (p = 0.012) and MR (p = 0.037) ↓ MDA in MR (p = 0.013) and HR (p = 0.023) ↔ IL-6, TNF-α and CK. |
Azizbeigi et al., 2015 [208] |
| RE training (6 weeks) |
Rats 4 groups: a) RE training b) RE training + alcohol treatment (35% of kilocalorie intake) for 6 weeks c) sedentary d) sedentary + alcohol treatment |
6 weeks, 3 days/week Rise onto their hind limbs while wearing lead-weighted vests 30 times per training session |
Alcohol treatment in the sedentary animals: ↑ cardiac malondialdehyde, lipid peroxidation ↓ index of myocardial antioxidant potential |
Chicco et al., 2006 [209] |
| RE training (14 weeks) |
elderly men and women | 14 weeks whole body regular RE | ↓ 8-OHdG ↔ Protein content for CuZnSOD, MnSOD, and catalase, and enzyme activities for citrate synthase, mitochondrial ETC complex I+III, and complex II+III |
Parise et al., 2005 [210] |
| CVE training (9 weeks) |
Male wistar rats | 9 weeks, 5 sessions/week, 60 min/session for 6 weeks and 90 min/session for 3w |
↔ TBARS, reactive carbonyl derivatives content, ↓ 8-OHdG ↑ DT-diaphoase and proteasome complex |
Radak et al., 1999 [211] |
4-HNE: 4-hydroxynonenal conjugated proteins; 8-IsoP: 8-Isoprostane; 8-OHdG: 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine; AKT: serine/threonine-specific protein kinase; BMI: body mass index; CAT: catalase; CK: creatine kinase; CSE: cystathionine-γ-lyase expression; CuZnSOD: Copper- and zinc-containing superoxide dismutase; CVE: cardiovascular exercise; eNOS: endothelial nitric oxide synthase; FOXO1: forkhead box protein O1; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GSH: reduced glutathione; HDL-C: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; hs-CRP: high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; IL-10: Interleukin-10; IL-6: Interleukin-6; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; LHP: Lipid peroxidation; LOOHs: lipid hydroperoxides; LOX-1: Lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor-1; MDA: malondialdehyde; MMP: matrix metalloprotease; MnSOD: manganese superoxide dismutase; NO: nitric oxide; NOx: nitrogen oxides; oxPAPC: oxidized 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine; RE: resistance exercise; SOD: superoxide dismutase; SOD2: superoxide dismutase 2; sVCAM-1: Soluble Vascular Cell Adhesion Molecule-1; TAC: total antioxidant capacity; TBARS: thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α; VO2max: maximum oxygen uptake. ↑: significant increase p < 0.05 vs. control; ↓: significant decrease vs. pre; ↔: no significant change.