Table 2.
Typical biomarkers of apoptosis
| Biomarker | Testing sample | Function | Method of detection | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Activated caspase 2, 3, 7, 8 and 9 | Tissue | Primary modulators of apoptosis | IHC, ELISA, flow cytometry, cytometric bead arrays | [82] |
| Caspase-3 | Myocardial injury and cardiovascular disease | Responsible for chromatin condensation and DNA fragmentation | IHC, ELISA, flow cytometry, cytometric bead arrays | [82, 83] |
| Caspase 3/7 | Hypothalamic cell model | Primary modulators of apoptosis | Multiplexing fluorescent and luminescent assays | [84] |
| Caspase 6 | Neurodegenerative disorders (Alzheimer’s and Huntington disease) | Primary modulators of apoptosis | Electrochemiluminescence-based ELISA assay | [85] |
| Cytochrome C |
Tissue, serum HL-60 cells and thymocytes |
Transfer electrons from the cytochrome bc1 complex to cytochrome oxidase membrane | ELISA, flow cytometry | [82, 86] |
| CK18 | Hepatocellular Carcinoma Treated with Sorafenib | M30- and M65-based sandwich ELISAs | [87] | |
| Cytokeratins | Tissue, serum plasma | IHC, ELISA, flow cytometry, | [82] | |
| Nucleosomal DNA | Tissue, serum | ELISA, DNA array, PCR | [82] | |
|
Apo-I/Fas, Fas ligand (sFAsL) Expressed on B and T cells as well as in normal and tumor tissue |
Granulomatous disease | Increase the antigen-specific CD8( +) T-cell responses during viral infection | IHC, ELISA, flow cytometry | [82, 88, 89] |
| Bcl-2/Bcl-xl/Mcl-I | Cells, tissue | IHC, ELISA, flow cytometry | [82] | |
| TRAIL | Inducing the autoimmune inflammation | Induces apoptosis through an extrinsic pathway, | [90] | |
|
Tumor protein p53 (TP53) |
Colorectal cancer and other cancers | TP53 activation is capable of inducing apoptosis by intrinsic pathway | IHC, ELISA, flow cytometry | [82, 91] |
ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; IHC immunohistochemistry; PCR polymerase chain reaction