Table 3.
Negative binomial regression of patients receiving prescriptions for antidepressants, opioids, gabapentinoids, benzodiazepines, or Z-drugs in 2017–18, adjusted by sex, age, and deprivation category, for the national registered adult population (N=46 324 965)
| Unadjusted IRR | Adjusted IRR | E-value* | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antidepressants | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| Female | 1·89 (1·87–1·90) | 1·89 (1·88–1·91) | 3·19 (3·16) | |
| Age, years | ||||
| 18–24 | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 25–44 | 1·27 (1·24–1·30) | 1·29 (1·25–1·32) | 1·89 (1·81) | |
| 45–64 | 1·82 (1·76–1·89) | 1·85 (1·79–1·92) | 3·11 (2·98) | |
| 65–74 | 1·77 (1·70–1·83) | 1·81 (1·74–1·88) | 3·02 (2·88) | |
| ≥75 | 2·07 (2·00–2·14) | 2·07 (2·00–2·14) | 3·56 (3·42) | |
| IMD quintile | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 2 | 1·08 (1·05–1·12) | 1·10 (1·06–1·13) | 1·42 (1·32) | |
| 3 | 1·08 (1·03–1·14) | 1·12 (1·06–1·17) | 1·48 (1·32) | |
| 4 | 1·11 (1·03–1·19) | 1·16 (1·09–1·24) | 1·59 (1·40) | |
| 5 (most deprived) | 1·15 (1·08–1·24) | 1·24 (1·16–1·33) | 1·78 (1·58) | |
| Model constant | .. | 0·06 (0·06–0·06) | .. | |
| Opioids | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| Female | 1·55 (1·54–1·56) | 1·61 (1·60–1·63) | 2·61 (2·58) | |
| Age, years | ||||
| 18–24 | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 25–44 | 2·16 (2·09–2·23) | 2·21 (2·13–2·29) | 3·84 (3·68) | |
| 45–64 | 4·31 (4·10–4·53) | 4·59 (4·36–4·83) | 8·65 (8·20) | |
| 65–74 | 6·18 (5·87–6·50) | 6·77 (6·41–7·15) | 13·01 (12·29) | |
| ≥75 | 8·18 (7·81–8·56) | 8·79 (8·38–9·22) | 17·07 (16·25) | |
| IMD quintile | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 2 | 1·16 (1·12–1·21) | 1·20 (1·15–1·24) | 1·68 (1·57) | |
| 3 | 1·25 (1·18–1·32) | 1·34 (1·27–1·40) | 2·01 (1·86) | |
| 4 | 1·36 (1·28–1·45) | 1·52 (1·44–1·61) | 2·41 (2·23) | |
| 5 (most deprived) | 1·56 (1·48–1·66) | 1·85 (1·76–1·95) | 3·11 (2·91) | |
| Model constant | .. | 0·02 (0·02–0·02) | .. | |
| Gabapentinoids | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| Female | 1·59 (1·57–1·60) | 1·66 (1·64–1·68) | 2·70 (2·67) | |
| Age, years | ||||
| 18–24 | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 25–44 | 3·52 (3·34–3·71) | 3·51 (3·32–3·71) | 6·47 (6·09) | |
| 45–64 | 8·50 (7·93–9·11) | 8·67 (8·06–9·33) | 16·83 (15·60) | |
| 65–74 | 10·25 (9·54–11·01) | 10·98 (10·18–11·84) | 21·45 (19·86) | |
| ≥75 | 12·25 (11·45–13·11) | 13·04 (12·16–13·97) | 25·56 (23·82) | |
| IMD quintile | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 2 | 1·18 (1·13–1·23) | 1·21 (1·17–1·27) | 1·73 (1·60) | |
| 3 | 1·31 (1·23–1·39) | 1·39 (1·31–1·48) | 2·13 (1·95) | |
| 4 | 1·42 (1·32–1·54) | 1·56 (1·44–1·68) | 2·48 (2·24) | |
| 5 (most deprived) | 1·62 (1·48–1·76) | 1·85 (1·69–2·01) | 3·09 (2·78) | |
| Model constant | .. | 0·00 (0·00–0·00) | .. | |
| Benzodiazepines | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| Female | 1·76 (1·74–1·77) | 1·71 (1·70–1·73) | 2·82 (2·79) | |
| Age, years | ||||
| 18–24 | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 25–44 | 2·29 (2·21–2·37) | 2·32 (2·25–2·41) | 4·08 (3·92) | |
| 45–64 | 3·21 (3·07–3·37) | 3·27 (3·11–3·43) | 5·99 (5·68) | |
| 65–74 | 3·90 (3·68–4·12) | 3·89 (3·67–4·11) | 7·24 (6·81) | |
| ≥75 | 5·65 (5·35–5·96) | 5·44 (5·16–5·73) | 10·35 (9·79) | |
| IMD quintile | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 2 | 1·00 (0·97–1·04) | 1·03 (0·99–1·06) | 1·19 (1·00) | |
| 3 | 0·93 (0·88–0·98) | 0·97 (0·93–1·02) | 1·19 (1·00) | |
| 4 | 0·85 (0·79–0·91) | 0·90 (0·85–0·96) | 1·46 (1·26) | |
| 5 (most deprived) | 0·82 (0·75–0·89) | 0·89 (0·82–0·97) | 1·50 (1·23) | |
| Model constant | .. | 0·01 (0·01–0·01) | .. | |
| Z-drugs | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| Female | 1·60 (1·58–1·61) | 1·57 (1·55–1·59) | 2·51 (2·47) | |
| Age, years | ||||
| 18–24 | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 25–44 | 1·84 (1·78–1·90) | 1·84 (1·78–1·91) | 3·09 (2·96) | |
| 45–64 | 2·97 (2·84–3·11) | 2·98 (2·84–3·13) | 5·41 (5·12) | |
| 65–74 | 3·68 (3·49–3·87) | 3·70 (3·51–3·89) | 6·85 (6·47) | |
| ≥75 | 5·40 (5·12–5·69) | 5·35 (5·08–5·64) | 10·18 (9·63) | |
| IMD quintile | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 2 | 0·97 (0·93–1·01) | 1·02 (0·98–1·07) | 1·18 (1·00) | |
| 3 | 0·94 (0·88–1·00) | 1·03 (0·97–1·09) | 1·21 (1·00) | |
| 4 | 0·87 (0·80–0·93) | 0·99 (0·92–1·06) | 1·13 (1·00) | |
| 5 (most deprived) | 0·93 (0·85–1·02) | 1·11 (1·01–1·22) | 1·45 (1·11) | |
| Model constant | .. | 0·01 (0·01–0·01) | .. | |
IRR=incident rate ratio.
*
Values in parentheses are the lower bound of the 95% CI (towards the null).