Table 4.
Negative binomial regression of patients estimated to have been receiving an antidepressant, opioid, gabapentinoid, benzodiazepine, or Z-drug for at least 12 months, adjusted by sex, age, and deprivation category
| Unadjusted IRR | Adjusted IRR | E-value* | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Antidepressants (N=4 482 793) | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| Female | 1·01 (1·00–1·01) | 1·00 (1·00–1·01) | 1·07 (1·02) | |
| Age, years | ||||
| 18–24 | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 25–44 | 1·71 (1·68–1·75) | 1·70 (1·67–1·73) | 2·79 (2·72) | |
| 45–64 | 2·28 (2·23–2·34) | 2·27 (2·21–2·32) | 3·96 (3·85) | |
| 65–74 | 2·60 (2·54–2·67) | 2·61 (2·54–2·67) | 4·65 (4·52) | |
| ≥75 | 2·72 (2·64–2·79) | 2·74 (2·66–2·82) | 4·93 (4·77) | |
| IMD quintile | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 2 | 1·05 (1·02–1·08) | 1·06 (1·03–1·10) | 1·32 (1·20) | |
| 3 | 1·05 (1·02–1·09) | 1·07 (1·03–1·11) | 1·35 (1·22) | |
| 4 | 1·10 (1·06–1·14) | 1·13 (1·08–1·17) | 1·50 (1·39) | |
| 5 (most deprived) | 1·15 (1·11–1·20) | 1·19 (1·14–1·25) | 1·68 (1·55) | |
| Model constant | .. | 0·22 (0·21–0·23) | .. | |
| Opioids (N=2 345 796) | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| Female | 1·03 (1·03–1·04) | 1·05 (1·04–1·05) | 1·27 (1·25) | |
| Age, years | ||||
| 18–24 | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 25–44 | 2·45 (2·36–2·53) | 2·45 (2·37–2·54) | 4·34 (4·17) | |
| 45–64 | 2·99 (2·87–3·11) | 3·02 (2·90–3·15) | 5·49 (5·25) | |
| 65–74 | 3·01 (2·89–3·14) | 3·07 (2·94–3·21) | 5·60 (5·33) | |
| ≥75 | 2·88 (2·75–3·00) | 2·95 (2·83–3·08) | 5·35 (5·10) | |
| IMD quintile | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 2 | 1·06 (1·04–1·07) | 1·06 (1·04–1·07) | 1·31 (1·25) | |
| 3 | 1·09 (1·06–1·12) | 1·09 (1·07–1·12) | 1·41 (1·34) | |
| 4 | 1·14 (1·10–1·17) | 1·14 (1·11–1·18) | 1·55 (1·47) | |
| 5 (most deprived) | 1·15 (1·11–1·19) | 1·17 (1·13–1·21) | 1·61 (1·50) | |
| Model constant | .. | 0·15 (0·15–0·16) | .. | |
| Gabapentinoids (N=855 680) | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| Female | 0·97 (0·96–0·97) | 0·97 (0·97–0·98) | 1·19 (1·18) | |
| Age, years | ||||
| 18–24 | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 25–44 | 1·54 (1·49–1·60) | 1·50 (1·44–1·56) | 2·37 (2·25) | |
| 45–64 | 1·72 (1·66–1·79) | 1·68 (1·62–1·74) | 2·75 (2·62) | |
| 65–74 | 1·70 (1·64–1·76) | 1·68 (1·63–1·74) | 2·76 (2·64) | |
| ≥75 | 1·71 (1·66–1·77) | 1·72 (1·66–1·79) | 2·84 (2·71) | |
| IMD quintile | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 2 | 1·07 (1·04–1·10) | 1·08 (1·05–1·10) | 1·36 (1·27) | |
| 3 | 1·09 (1·05–1·12) | 1·09 (1·06–1·13) | 1·41 (1·31) | |
| 4 | 1·14 (1·11–1·18) | 1·15 (1·11–1·18) | 1·56 (1·47) | |
| 5 (most deprived) | 1·19 (1·14–1·24) | 1·20 (1·15–1·25) | 1·68 (1·56) | |
| Model constant | .. | 0·30 (0·29–0·31) | .. | |
| Benzodiazepines (N=419 903) | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| Female | 1·03 (1·02–1·04) | 1·00 (0·98–1·01) | 1·05 (1·00) | |
| Age, years | ||||
| 18–24 | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 25–44 | 2·85 (2·62–3·10) | 2·80 (2·58–3·04) | 5·05 (4·60) | |
| 45–64 | 3·98 (3·63–4·38) | 3·90 (3·55–4·27) | 7·26 (6·57) | |
| 65–74 | 4·46 (4·05–4·92) | 4·47 (4·05–4·92) | 8·40 (7·57) | |
| ≥75 | 4·54 (4·12–5·01) | 4·65 (4·21–5·13) | 8·76 (7·89) | |
| IMD quintile | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 2 | 1·10 (1·08–1·13) | 1·12 (1·09–1·15) | 1·49 (1·42) | |
| 3 | 1·15 (1·11–1·19) | 1·18 (1·13–1·22) | 1·63 (1·52) | |
| 4 | 1·24 (1·20–1·28) | 1·28 (1·24–1·32) | 1·89 (1·79) | |
| 5 (most deprived) | 1·30 (1·24–1·36) | 1·37 (1·31–1·43) | 2·08 (1·95) | |
| Model constant | .. | 0·11 (0·10–0·12) | .. | |
| Z-drugs (N=364 617) | ||||
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| Female | 1·05 (1·04–1·06) | 1·05 (1·04–1·06) | 1·27 (1·23) | |
| Age, years | ||||
| 18–24 | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 25–44 | 4·10 (3·60–4·66) | 4·03 (3·55–4·58) | 7·52 (6·55) | |
| 45–64 | 5·62 (4·90–6·44) | 5·61 (4·90–6·44) | 10·71 (9·26) | |
| 65–74 | 6·01 (5·24–6·90) | 6·20 (5·39–7·13) | 11·88 (10·26) | |
| ≥75 | 6·08 (5·29–6·98) | 6·37 (5·53–7·34) | 12·22 (10·53) | |
| IMD quintile | ||||
| 1 (least deprived) | 1·00 (ref) | 1·00 (ref) | .. | |
| 2 | 1·05 (1·02–1·09) | 1·07 (1·04–1·11) | 1·35 (1·25) | |
| 3 | 1·11 (1·06–1·16) | 1·15 (1·09–1·21) | 1·56 (1·40) | |
| 4 | 1·15 (1·10–1·20) | 1·22 (1·17–1·27) | 1·74 (1·62) | |
| 5 (most deprived) | 1·16 (1·11–1·21) | 1·27 (1·21–1·32) | 1·85 (1·72) | |
| Model constant | .. | 0·08 (0·07–0·10) | .. | |
IRR=incident rate ratio.
*
Lower bound of the CI towards the null.