Table 1.

Summary of studies reporting the effects of meal timings and dietary factors on glycaemic control.

Authors	Year of publication	Participants	Main finding	Ref. no.
Sakai et al.37	2018	Men and women Type 2 diabetics	Late-night dinner independently associated with poor glycaemic control	37
Kajiyama et al.49	2018	Young women Healthy	Late-night dinners increased postprandial hyperglycaemia Consuming dinner dividedly ameliorate postprandial glucose levels	49
Imai et al.51	2017	Men and women Type 2 diabetics	Late-night dinners increased postprandial hyperglycaemia	51
Van Cauter et al.46	1992	Men and women Healthy	For identical mixed meals, total and 2-h AUC were 25–50% greater in the evening than in the morning	46
Jakubowicz et al.57	2013	Women Overweight and obese metabolic syndrome (BMI: 32 kg/m2)	High-energy breakfast and reduced-energy dinner significantly reduces postprandial glycaemia in obese non-diabetic individuals	57
Jakubowicz et al.53	2015	Men and women Type 2 diabetics	High-energy breakfast and reduced-energy dinner significantly lowered postprandial glycaemia	58
Jakubowicz et al.53	2015	Type 2 diabetics	Skipping breakfast associated with a worsened glycaemic response after lunch and dinner in type 2 diabetics	53
Bo et al.56	2014	Men and women (45–64 years) Exclusion: obesity and/or diabetes mellitus at baseline	Individuals in highest tertile of dinner, % daily caloric intake showed increased risk of incident type 2 diabetes	56
Bo et al.89	2015	Men and women Healthy	Delayed and larger rises in glucose and insulin concentration after evening meals	89
Bandin et al.19	2015	Women Healthy	Late eating of lunch showed increased postprandial glucose than early-eating	19
Tsuchida et al.64	2013	Women Healthy	Late supper increased postprandial serum glucose profiles the following morning	64
Al-Naimi et al.50	2004	Men Healthy	Meals and snacks eaten during simulated night shift work had higher postprandial glucose Glucose tolerance impaired after first night-time meal, with no differences observed following second meal	50
Sato et al.48	2011	Men and women Healthy	Increase in postprandial glucose after late evening meal which carried over to breakfast	48
Reutrakul et al.31	2014	Women Type 2 diabetics	Breakfast skipping significantly associated with higher HbA1C values	31
Peter et al.52	2010	Men and women Type 2 diabetics	Morning glucose excursions higher than in the evening Decreased glucose tolerance for first and third meal of the day	52
Kobayashi et al.36	2014	Men Healthy	Breakfast skipping, and big meals at lunch and dinner, had greater postprandial glucose, especially after dinner	36
Takahashi et al.90	2018	Men Healthy	Higher postprandial glucose for evening meal than morning meal	90
Morgan et al.68	2012	Men and women Healthy	Glucose levels higher with late consumption of high GI meals compared with low GI meals Insulin sensitivity worsens with high-energy meals consumed in evening	68
Gibbs et al.69	2014	Men and women Healthy	Postprandial glucose AUC showed effect with time of day after both low GI and high GI meals Higher glycaemic responses in the evening for low GI meal	69
Leung et al.72	2019	Men and women Healthy	Low GI meals at night contribute to higher glucose excursions and greater insulin levels compared with low GI meals in morning	72
Kessler et al.63	2017	Men Non-obese (normal and impaired glucose, fasting tolerance)	Increased absorption of dietary cabohydrates late night resulting in a higher postprandial glucose profile the following morning	63
Davis et al.76	2019	Men and women Healthy	High protein meal attenuates glucose excursions compared with a standard meal at night	76
Bonham et al.75	2019	Men Healthy	Modifying night meal by reducing saturated fat and sugar improved postprandial glucose	75
Holmbäck et al.74	2002	Men Healthy	High fat diet significant circadian pattern for plasma glucose compared with high carbohydrate diet	74
Gentilcore et al.77	2006	Type 2 diabetics	Olive oil consumed 30 min before a potato meal attenuated postprandial rise in glucose	77
Sun et al.78	2017	Men Healthy	Milk protein consumed before eating bread reduced GR	78
Sun et al.79	2015	Men Healthy	Essence of chicken co-ingested with white bread reduced GR compared with white bread alone	79
Soong et al.80	2015	Men Healthy	Essence of chicken co-ingested with white rice reduced GR compared with white rice alone	80
Takahashi et al.84	2019	Women Healthy	Green tea consumption beneficial in the evening to reduce postprandial glucose concentrations by 3% lower than placebo	84
Sartorelli et al.	2019	Women	Coffee and caffeine intake at lunch time inversely associated with the risk of diabetes	87
Lund et al.26	2001	Men and women Shift workers	Observed abnormal metabolic responses for meals consumed at night during, due to insulin resistance	26
Hampton et al.27	1996	Men and women Shift workers	Significant higher postprandial glucose and insulin responses at phase shift (body clock time 2230 h)	27