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. 2020 Jan 23;20(3):646. doi: 10.3390/s20030646

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© 2020 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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(A) Signal amplification strategies: (a) use of combination of nanomaterials and multi-enzyme labels on a secondary antibody to enhance the outgoing signal, (b) use of electro-active (AuNPs or electro-conductive polymeric) NPs, (c) a competitive approach in which analyte labeled with electro-active nanoparticles competes towards complex formation with Ab $_{1}$ immobilized on electrode surface. Electrode modification approach involves controlling geometry and coating with conductive nanoparticles to boost the change in detecting signal. (B) Signal to Least detectable concentration plot for different ECIA scheme sECIA/Titanium Phosphate (TiP)/AgNP [105]; sECIA FC/PPN [107]; sECIA/AuNP [106]; sELECIA/DNA [110]; sELECIA/PDA/AuNP [109]; sELECIA/SWNT (single-walled carbon nanotubes) [108].