Table IV.

Personnel habits and female reproduction and pregnancy outcome

Exposure	Effects
Prenatal very high doses of alcohol	6-10% of developing foetus have risk of FAS61
Alcohol during pregnancy	Adversely affect mother and foetus; women consume excess alcohol are at risk for a child with FAS62
Tobacco and smoking	Adverse effect on ovarian function and reversible effects on implantation and ongoing pregnancy. Modify fertility affecting uterine-fallopian tube functions. Miscarriage due to effects of nicotine, Cd and PAHs on trophoblast65
Female smoking	Elevates TTP while links with male smoking are ambiguous66
Prenatal tobacco smoking	Toxic effects of prenatal tobacco smoking on foetal growth and infant weight67
ETS exposure during pregnancy	Risk of SGA and LBW among neonates68
Snuff uses during pregnancy	Reduced birth weight 39 g in snuff users and risk of preterm delivery and preeclampsia69
Snuff uses during early pregnancy	Risks of SGA births70
Smokeless tobacco use in pregnancy	3-fold increased risk of stillbirth and 2-3 fold risk of LBW71
Prenatal smokeless tobacco use	Birth weight reduced 78 g while no association with PTB, hypertension or placental abruption of smokeless tobacco users72
Betel quid chewing during pregnancy	Adverse birth outcomes were five times higher73
Maternal areca nut chewing during pregnancy	Associated with birth weight loss, birth length reduction. Enhanced risk of LBW with simultaneous use of betel quid, cigarette and alcohol74

FAS, foetal alcoholic syndrome; TTP, time to pregnancy; ETS, environmental tobacco smoke; PAHs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons