Table 3.

Predictors of gestational weight gain among pregnant women (minimally adjusteda ^, b)

Variables	GWG (continuous) not adjusting for GA	GWG (continuous) adjusting for GA	GWG below IOM guidelines (<0.35 kg/week) adjusting for GA	GWG less than the third centile of INTERGROWTH‐21st standards not adjusting for GA	GWG <50th centile of INTERGROWTH‐21st standards not adjusting for GA
Adolescent
Yes	−0.004 [−0.08, 0.07]	−0.01 [−0.09, 0.08]	1.4 [0.9, 2.4]	0.8 [0.5, 1.4]	1.0 [0.5, 2.0]
No	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref
Education
Any formal education	0.06 [−0.02, 0.14]	0.06 [−0.02, 0.14]	0.9 [0.5, 1.5]	0.5 [0.3, 0.9]*	1.1 [0.6, 1.9]
No education	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref
Principal occupation
Housewife	−0.06 [−0.15, 0.04]	−0.05 [−0.15, 0.04]	1.4 [0.9, 2.1]	1.0 [0.64, 1.57]	1.0 [0.7, 1.7]
Nonhousewife	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref
Number of pregnancies	−0.009 [−0.02, 0.002]	−0.009 [−0.02, 0.001]	1.04 [0.97, 1.12]	1.1 [0.97, 1.16]	1.11 [1.03, 1.20]*
Number of living children	−0.0068[−0.02, 0.01]	−0.009 [−0.02, 0.006]	1.02 [0.94, 1.11]	1.1 [0.98, 1.20]	1.0 [0.9, 1.1]
Height	0.004 [−0.001,0.01]	0.004 [−0.001, 0.01]	0.96 [0.92, 0.98]*	0.98 [0.95, 1.02]	0.94 [0.91, 0.98]*
Household livestock index
Above the median	0.003 [−0.05, 0.06]	0.001 [−0.06, 0.06]	1.0 [0.7, 1.4]	0.8 [0.6, 1.2]	1.1 [0.8, 1.6]
At or below the median	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref
Housing quality index
Above the median	−0.02 [−0.10, 0.06]	−0.02 [−0.10, 0.06]	1.1 [0.7, 1.6]	1.1 [0.8, 1.6]	1.1 [0.6, 1.8]
At or below the median	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref
Household asset index
Above the median	−0.02 [−0.08, 0.03]	−0.02 [−0.07, 0.04]	1.1 [0.8, 1.5]	1.1 [0.7, 1.7]	1.2 [0.8, 1.8]
At or below the median	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref
Reported food intake
Increased	0.004 [−0.10, 0.11]	0.01 [−0.1, 0.12]	0.9 [0.5, 1.6]	1.1 [0.6, 2.2]	1.0 [0.5, 2.0]
Decreased	−0.005 [−0.09, 0.08]	−0.004 [−0.09, 0.08]	0.8 [0.4, 1.4]	1.3 [0.7, 2.4]	0.9 [0.4, 1.8]
No change	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref
Number of meals
Increased	−0.03 [−0.14, 0.08]	−0.03 [−0.13, 0.08]	1.1 [0.5, 1.9]	1.2 [0.7, 2.1]	1.1 [0.5, 2.4]
Decreased	−0.02 [−0.10, 0.05]	−0.02 [−0.09, 0.05]	0.8 [0.5, 1.4]	1.2 [0.8, 2.0]	1.1 [0.6, 1.9]
No change	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref
Levels of household food insecurity
Food secure	−0.06 [−0.17, 0.04]	−0.07 [−0.18, 0.04]	1.8 [1.0, 3.4]*	0.20 [0.65, 2.28]	0.51 [0.84, 3.33]
Mildly food insecure	−0.03 [−0.15, 0.09]	−0.04 [−0.16, 0.09]	1.7 [0.8, 3.4]	0.10 [0.50, 2.60]	0.15 [0.49, 2.74]
Moderately food insecure	−0.04 [−0.17, 0.09]	−0.04 [−0.17, 0.09]	1.4 [0.7, 2.7]	0.03 [0.50, 2.14]	0.46 [0.79, 3.22]
Severely food insecure	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref	Ref
Adequate minimum dietary diversity	0.01 [−0.05, 0.07]	−0.01 [−0.08, 0.05]	0.7 [0.5, 1.1]	0.93 [0.64, 1.34]	0.8 [0.5, 1.3]
Received food assistance	−0.008 [−0.10, 0.08]	−0.003 [−0.09, 0.09]	1.6 [0.9, 3.0]**	1.03 [0.57, 1.86]	1.4 [0.6, 3.4]
Haemoglobinc, g/dl	0.21 [0.02, 0.4]*	0.2 [0.006, 0.40]*	0.29 [0.10, 0.88]*	0.4 [0.1, 1.6]	0.9 [0.2, 4.2]
Plasma folate concentration, nmol/L	0.04 [−0.07, 0.14]	0.03 [−0.06, 0.13]	0.8 [0.4, 1.6]	0.97 [0.50, 1.90]	0.8 [0.3, 2.0]
Plasma vitamin B12 concentration, pmol/L	−0.04 [−0.14, 0.07]	−0.06 [−0.17, 0.05]	2.0 [0.99, 3.79]**	1.2 [0.6, 2.3]	1.4 [0.7, 2.9]
Retinol binding protein concentrationd , μmol/L	−0.07 [−0.17, 0.03]	−0.06 [−0.16, 0.04]	1.6 [0.8, 3.1]	0.97 [0.5, 2.0]	1.6 [0.6, 4.0]
Plasma ferritin concentrationd, μg/L	−0.05 [−0.10, 0.006]	−0.05 [−0.11, 0.003]**	1.22 [0.88, 1.71]	1.5 [1.1, 2.0]*	1.1 [0.8, 1.6]
Soluble transferrin receptor concentration, mg/L	−0.05 [−0.11, 0.02]	−0.04 [−0.11, 0.03]	1.6 [1.04, 2.5]*	1.4 [0.8, 2.2]	1.0 [0.6, 1.5]
Plasma zinc concentrationd, μg/dl	−0.002 [0.006, 0.002]	−0.002 [−0.007, 0.002]	1.0 [0.97, 1.03]	1.0 [0.98, 1.03]	1.03 [1.0, 1.07]**
α‐1‐acid glycoprotein concentration, g/L	−0.10 [−0.17, −0.02]*	−0.1 [−0.2, −0.02]*	1.7 [1.1, 2.8]*	1.9 [1,2, 3.0]*	1.3 [0.7, 2.3]
C‐reactive protein concentration, mg/L	−0.002 [−0.006, −0.002]*	−0.03 [−0.06, −0.01]*	1.14 [0.98, 1.32]	1.2 [1.02, 1.50]*	1.1 [1.0, 1.3]
Plasma histidine‐rich protein II concentration, ng/L	−0.06 [−0.13, 0.002]**	−0.06 [−0.13, 0.003]**	1.72 [1.01, 2.92]*	1.3 [0.8, 2.2]	1.2 [0.6, 2.3]

^aSample size for GWG analysis, n = 918, (only women in their second and third trimester of gestation at Visit 1 and who completed both Visits 1 and 2 were considered) and sample size for biochemistry indicators, n = 770.

^bMinimally adjusted model: adjusted for year, season, and village because of the nature of the study design.

^cA 0.1 g/dl in Hb concentration was associated with a 1.0‐g increase in GWG.

^dAdjusted for acute phase protein.

^* Statistically significant, P < .05.

^** Marginally significant; P = .05–.07.