Table 1.
Sociodemographic characteristics according to weight-glycemia phenotype clusters 1–6
| Characteristics, mean (SD) or n (%) |
All n=1817 |
Weight-glycemia cluster | ||||||
| Cluster 1 n=618 (34.0%) |
Cluster 2 n=195 (10.7%) |
Cluster 3 n=509 (28.0%) |
Cluster 4 n=79 (4.4%) |
Cluster 5 n=137 (7.5%) |
Cluster 6 n=279 (15.4%) |
P value† | ||
| Weight-glycemia | ||||||||
| BMIz | 0.61 (0.94) | 0.59 (0.59) | −0.68 (0.65)** | 0.56 (0.62) | −1.05 (0.83)** | 1.29 (0.69)** | 1.74 (0.42)** | <0.0001 |
| HbA1c (mmol/mol) | 76 (21) | 61 (12) | 68 (10) | 86 (12) | 113 (15) | 109 (15) | 70 (11) | <0.0001 |
| HbA1c (%) | 9.1 (1.9) | 7.7 (1.1) | 8.4 (0.9)** | 10.0 (1.1)** | 12.5 (1.4)** | 12.1 (1.5)** | 8.6 (1.0)** | <0.0001 |
| Weight status‡ | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Underweight | 36 (2.0) | 0 (0.0) | 17 (8.7) | 1 (0.2) | 18 (22.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | |
| Normal weight | 1152 (63.4) | 467 (75.6) | 177 (90.8)** | 390 (76.6) | 61 (77.2)** | 47 (34.3)** | 10 (3.6)** | |
| Overweight | 390 (21.5) | 138 (22.3) | 1 (0.5)** | 105 (20.6) | 0 (0.0)** | 42 (30.7)** | 104 (37.3)** | |
| Obesity | 239 (13.2) | 13 (2.1) | 0 (0.0)** | 13 (2.6) | 0 (0.0)** | 48 (35.0)** | 165 (59.1)** | |
| Glycemic control§ | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Good | 306 (16.8) | 237 (38.4) | 31 (15.9)** | 2 (0.4)** | 0 (0.0)** | 0 (0.0)** | 36 (12.9)** | |
| Moderate | 656 (36.1) | 312 (50.5) | 112 (57.4)** | 86 (16.9)** | 0 (0.0)** | 2 (1.5)** | 155 (51.6)** | |
| Poor | 704 (38.8) | 69 (11.2) | 52 (26.7)** | 389 (76.4)** | 28 (35.4)** | 67 (48.9)** | 99 (35.5)** | |
| Very poor | 151 (8.3) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 32 (6.3)** | 51 (64.6)** | 68 (49.6)** | 0 (0.0)** | |
| Demographic characteristics | ||||||||
| Age at follow-up (years) | 17.6 (4.5) | 17.6 (5.0) | 16.8 (4.6)* | 17.3 (4.1) | 19.0 (4.0)* | 18.8 (3.6)** | 17.7 (4.3) | 0.008 |
| Age at diagnosis (years) | 9.8 (4.1) | 9.8 (4.5) | 9.3 (4.0) | 9.5 (3.8) | 11.1 (3.9)* | 10.7 (3.3)* | 9.7 (3.9) | 0.014 |
| Diabetes duration (months) | 93.3 (22.8) | 92.2 (23.0) | 88.8 (23.1)* | 94.1 (22.6) | 95.2 (22.4) | 97.3 (22.1)* | 95.1 (22.9)* | 0.050 |
| Female | 898 (49.4) | 282 (45.6) | 62 (31.8)** | 286 (56.2)** | 25 (31.7)* | 90 (65.7)** | 153 (54.8)* | <0.0001 |
| Race/ethnicity¶ | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Non-Hispanic white | 1380 (76.0) | 542 (87.7) | 167 (85.6) | 351 (69.0)** | 46 (58.2)** | 69 (50.4)** | 205 (73.5)** | |
| Non-Hispanic black | 173 (9.5) | 17 (2.8) | 7 (3.6) | 69 (13.6)** | 22 (27.9)** | 32 (23.4)** | 26 (9.3)** | |
| Hispanic | 222 (12.2) | 45 (7.3) | 19 (9.7) | 75 (14.7)** | 11 (13.9)** | 31 (22.6)** | 41 (14.7)** | |
| Asian Pacific Islander | 28 (1.5) | 12 (1.9)** | 2 (1.0)** | 9 (1.8)** | 0 (0.0)** | 2 (1.5)** | 3 (1.1)** | |
| Native American | 9 (0.5) | 1 (0.2)** | 0 (0.0)** | 2 (0.4)** | 0 (0.0)** | 3 (2.2)** | 3 (1.1)** | |
| Other | 4 (0.2) | 0 (0.0)** | 0 (0.0)** | 3 (0.6)** | 0 (0.0)** | 0 (0.0)** | 1 (0.4)** | |
| Socioeconomic position | ||||||||
| Parental education | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Bachelor’s degree or more | 956 (52.6) | 459 (74.3) | 143 (73.3) | 182 (35.8)** | 19 (24.0)** | 33 (24.1)** | 120 (43.0)** | |
| Some college through associate degree | 578 (31.8) | 121 (19.6) | 40 (20.5) | 217 (42.6)** | 32 (40.5)** | 61 (44.5)** | 107 (38.4)** | |
| High school degree | 214 (11.8) | 32 (5.2) | 9 (4.6) | 86 (16.9)** | 20 (25.3)** | 28 (20.4)** | 39 (14.0)** | |
| Less than high school degree | 69 (3.8) | 6 (1.0) | 3 (1.5) | 24 (4.7)** | 8 (10.1)** | 15 (11.0)** | 13 (4.7)** | |
| Household Income | <0.0001 | |||||||
| >$75 000 | 682 (37.5) | 320 (51.8) | 98 (50.2) | 138 (27.1)** | 7 (7.6)** | 22 (16.1)** | 98 (25.1)** | |
| $50 000–$75 000 | 271 (14.9) | 99 (16.0) | 37 (19.0) | 57 (11.2)** | 6 (7.6)** | 22 (16.1)** | 50 (17.9)** | |
| $25 000–$49 000 | 297 (16.4) | 71 (11.5) | 26 (13.3) | 110 (21.6)** | 21 (26.6)** | 20 (14.6)** | 49 (17.6)** | |
| <$25 000 | 277 (15.2) | 4 (7.4) | 16 (8.2) | 103 (20.2)** | 25 (31.7)** | 47 (34.3)** | 40 (14.3)** | |
| Don’t know/refused to answer | 290 (16.0) | 82 (13.3) | 18 (9.2) | 101 (19.8)** | 21 (26.6)** | 26 (19.0)** | 42 (15.1)** | |
| Health insurance type | <0.0001 | |||||||
| Private | 1309 (72.0) | 527 (85.3) | 152 (78.0)* | 326 (64.1)** | 38 (48.1)** | 64 (46.7)** | 202 (72.4)** | |
| Medicaid/Medicare | 360 (19.8) | 53 (8.6) | 28 (14.4)* | 140 (27.5)** | 33 (41.8)** | 47 (34.3)** | 59 (21.2)** | |
| None | 65 (3.6) | 10 (1.6) | 3 (1.5)* | 24 (4.7)** | 5 (6.3)** | 16 (11.7)** | 7 (2.5)** | |
| Other | 83 (4.6) | 28 (4.5) | 12 (6.2)* | 19 (3.7)** | 3 (3.8)** | 10 (7.3)** | 11 (3.9)** | |
All measures are from the cohort visit, unless stated otherwise.
*Significant pairwise comparison to cluster 1, where q<0.05. **Significant pairwise comparison to cluster 1, where q<0.001. Controlled for the positive false discovery rate.
†Bonferroni-corrected p value for overall test of difference, based on use of analysis of variance (ANOVA), χ2 or Fisher’s exact test as appropriate.
‡Weight status defined based on BMIz. Underweight was defined as cluster mean BMIz <−1.64 corresponding to the 5th percentile for age and sex. Normal weight was defined as cluster mean BMIz ≥−1.64 and <1.04, corresponding to ≥ the 5th and <85th percentiles for age and sex. Overweight was defined as cluster mean BMIz ≥1.04 and <1.64, corresponding to ≥85th percentile and <95th percentile for age and sex. Obesity was defined as cluster mean BMIz ≥1.64 corresponding to ≥95th percentile for age and sex.
§Glycemic control was based on HbA1c and defined as good (mean HbA1c <58 mmol/mol (<7.5%)), moderate (mean HbA1c 58 to <75 mmol/mol (7.5% to <9.0%)), poor (mean HbA1c 75 to <108 mmol/mol (9.0% to <12.0%)), and very poor (mean HbA1c ≥108 mmol/mol (≥12.0%)).
¶Self-reported race and ethnicity were collected using 2000 US Census questions.
BMIz, body mass index z-score; HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c.