Fig. 8. Vascularization of 3D bioprinted skeletal muscle constructs.

a Immunofluorescence for von Willebrand factor (vWF, green)/alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA, red) of injured TA muscles at 4 and 8 weeks after implantation. b, c Quantification of b area of vessels per HPF (µm²) (×400, n = 3 per group and time point, three random fields per sample) and c number of vessels per HFP (×400, n = 3 per group and time point, three random fields per sample). Bioprinted constructs implanted at the site of the muscle defect injury were vascularized, as confirmed by vWF⁺/α-SMA⁺ vessels, but there was no significant difference between the MPC only and MPC + NSC groups. All data are represented as mean ± SD. The p-values by two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test are indicated.