Table 3.

Natural products and their bioactive compounds with neuroprotective activities in treating amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis as well as chronic inflammation.

Plant extracts/phytochemicals (plant source)/natural products/substances	Study model	Neuroprotective activities	References
Anthocyanin extracted from strawberries	G93A mutant human SOD1 (hSOD1G93A) mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis	(i) Delayed the onset of disease and extend survival of hSOD1G93A mouse	[266]
		(ii) Preserved hind limb grip strength in the hSOD1G93A mouse
		(iii) Reduced astrogliosis (GFAP) in the spinal cord of hSOD1G93A mouse
		(iv) Preserved neuromuscular junctions in gastrocnemius muscle tissue
Alpinia oxyphylla fruit extract	Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mouse model of multiple sclerosis	(i) Reduced the symptoms in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mouse	[267]
		(ii) Reduced demyelination in the spinal cord
		(iii) Reduced inflammation (IFN-γ and IL-17) in the spinal cord
		(iv) Reduced gliosis in the spinal cord
		(v) Alleviated T helper (Th)1/Th17 response
		(vi) Reduced immune cell infiltration into spinal cord and brain
Isogarcinol extracted from Garcinia mangostana L. mangosteen	Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis-induced mouse	(i) Alleviated inflammation and demyelination in the brain and spinal cord	[268]
		(ii) Ameliorated the clinical signs of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis-induced mouse
		(iii) Reduced intracranial lesions
		(iv) Reduced number of Th1 and Th17 cells differentiation by inhibiting Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway
		(v) Reduced activation of CD4+ and CD11b+ cell populations
Ishige okamurae	Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis-induced rats	(i) Reduced inflammatory markers (TNF-α and COX-2)	[269]
		(ii) Ameliorated the clinical signs of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis-induced rats
		(iii) Suppressed T-cell proliferation
		(iv) Ameliorated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis-induced paralysis
Nigella sativa	Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis-induced rats	(i) Decreased transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1) expression	[270]
		(ii) Enhanced remyelination in the cerebellum
		(iii) Suppressed inflammation
Radix rehmanniae extract	Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis-induced mouse	(i) Reduced inflammation and demyelination in spinal cords	[271]
		(ii) Reduced CD3+ and CD11b+ cell populations in the spinal cord and brain
		(iii) Ameliorated the clinical signs
		(iv) Inhibited NF-κB signaling
		(v) Reduced expression of iNOS and NADPH oxidase
		(vi) Reduced peroxynitrite level in spinal cords
White grape (Vitis vinifera)	Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis-induced mouse	(i) Reduced TNF-α, iNOS, and PARP expression	[272]
		(ii) Reduced nitrotyrosine level
		(iii) Inhibited apoptosis (caspase-3 and Bcl-2 expression)
		(iv) Decreased the number of terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL)-positive
		(v) Modulated transcription factor Fork head box P3
Walnut extract	Lipopolysaccharide-induced neurotoxicity in rat microglial cell line	(i) Downregulated iNOS and Iba-1 expressions	[273]
		(ii) Upregulated calmodulin expression