Table 4.
Profiles of the three clusters identified
| Cluster 1 | Cluster 2 | Cluster 3 | P value | |
| EOSC | EOLC | LOSC | Wald test | |
| Cluster size %, N | 47.5 (298) | 35.0 (220) | 17.5 (110) | |
| Variables included in the clustering analysis | ||||
| Age at gambling initiation (yrs) | 16.4 | 17.9 | 36.1 | <0.001 *†‡ |
| Age at onset of problem gambling (yrs) | 26.5 | 41.3 | 45.1 | <0.001*†‡ |
| Duration of gambling history (yrs) | 16.2 | 35.4 | 16.2 | <0.001*‡ |
| Age at diagnosis of the first psychiatric comorbidities (if relevant) (yrs) | 15.3 | 23.7 | 26.5 | <0.001*† |
| History of gambling-free period of at least 1 month (%) | 71.0 | 53.6 | 58.3 | 0.001*‡ |
| Familial and social support related to gambling problems (%) | 92.6 | 84.3 | 92.5 | 0.018* |
| Preferred type of gambling | ||||
| Pure chance games (lotteries, slots, scratch cards, video lottery terminals, etc) | 48.2 | 58.2 | 79.8 | <0.001*‡ |
| Bank games with an element of skill (sports betting, horse race betting, blackjack) | 30.8 | 36.1 | 16.9 | |
| Social games with skill (Texas hold’em and Omaha variants of poker) | 21.0 | 5.7 | 3.4 | |
| Preferred gambling medium (on the Internet) | 20.0 | 8.1 | 2.3 | <0.001*† |
| <0.001*† | ||||
| Covariables (not included in clustering) | ||||
| Sociodemographic characteristics | ||||
| Gender (%) | ||||
| Women | 23.5 | 32.4 | 62.5 | <0.001*†‡ |
| Men | 76.5 | 67.6 | 37.5 | |
| Age (yrs) | 32.7 | 53.4 | 52.3 | <0.001*† |
| Level of income ≥ €1100 (1400 US$) (%) | 67.2 | 72.8 | 72.4 | 0.250 |
| Marital status (single) (%) | 55.4 | 38.7 | 57 | <0.001*‡ |
| Employment status (active) (%) | 73.0 | 56.0 | 52.0 | <0.001*† |
| Gambling severity | ||||
| Gambling status (%) | ||||
| Non-problem gamblers | 48.1 | 51.6 | 55.7 | 0.020*‡ |
| Problem gamblers without treatment | 16.8 | 23.0 | 21.3 | |
| Problem gamblers seeking treatment | 35.2 | 25.4 | 23.0 | 0.200 |
| Number of DSM-IV criteria (mean) | 3.8 | 3.7 | 3.3 | 0.200 |
| Gambling habits: | ||||
| Amount wagered monthly in gambling (in euros) | 0.560 | |||
| Gambling frequency over the past 12 months (%) | 0.067‡ | |||
| Less than once a month | 8.2 | 6.9 | 8.6 | |
| More than once a month | 17.6 | 12.9 | 19.2 | |
| Once a week | 13.2 | 14.6 | 20.6 | |
| More than once a week | 61.0 | 65.7 | 51.6 | |
| Comorbid psychiatric disorders | ||||
| Mood disorders (%) | 46.1 | 45.5 | 56.0 | 0.110 |
| Depressive episode (%) | 40.2 | 41.7 | 48.6 | 0.260 |
| Hypomanic or manic episode (%) | 13.6 | 9.2 | 12.9 | 0.240 |
| Anxiety disorders (%) | 38.2 | 36.4 | 40.0 | 0.780 |
| Panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia) | 18.4 | 21.4 | 25.4 | 0.220 |
| Social phobia | 11.7 | 8.4 | 15.9 | 0.082 |
| Obsessive compulsive disorder | 3.8 | 2.5 | 1 | 0.360 |
| Generalised anxiety disorder | 17.4 | 12 | 11.7 | 0.08 |
| Post-traumatic stress disorder | 7.2 | 6.3 | 9.7 | 0.490 |
| Addictive disorders (%) | 42.7 | 32.8 | 19.8 | <0.001*†‡ |
| Alcohol use disorder | 28.7 | 27.0 | 13.7 | 0.007 |
| Substance use disorder | 25.5 | 10.1 | 6.1 | <0.001 |
| Antisocial personality disorder (%) | 5.5 | 3.3 | 1.1 | 0.220 |
| Current suicide risk (%) | 19.4 | 26.7 | 29.5 | 0.027*† |
| Lifetime suicide attempts (%) | 11.4 | 18.2 | 15.4 | 0.055* |
| ADHD | ||||
| WURS score (M) | 31.7 | 28.7 | 28.3 | 0.096* |
| Personality | 54 .9 | |||
| TCI scores (M) | ||||
| Novelty seeking | 54.9 | 51.5 | 48.6 | 0.001*† |
| Harm avoidance | 43.7 | 44.7 | 42.8 | 0.730 |
| Determination | 67.8 | 67.0 | 68.7 | 0.720 |
| Cooperation | 73.6 | 73.5 | 75.6 | 0.450 |
| Reward dependence | 60.8 | 59.1 | 60.7 | 0.460 |
| Transcendence | 27.7 | 33.8 | 36.7 | <0.001*† |
| Persistence | 52.8 | 55.9 | 59.2 | 0.069† |
*Significant test (p<0.05) for the comparison between cluster 1 and cluster 2.
†Significant test (p<0.05) for the comparison between cluster 1 and cluster 3.
‡Significant test (p<0.05) for the comparison between cluster 2 and cluster 3.
ADHD, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder; DSM-IV, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition; EOLC, Early Onset and Long Course; EOSC, Early Onset and Short Course; LOSC, Late Onset and Short Course; TCI, temperament and character inventory; WURS, Wender-Utah Rating Scale; yrs, years.