TABLE 1.

Effects of sub-cellular functions concerning various cell types and exposure duration in microgravity environment.

Cell type	Effects of cells	Microgravity exposure time	References
Osteosarcoma cells (ROS 17/2.8)	Cell morphological change to rounded shape with long cytoplasmic extensions	4 days and 6 days	Guignandon et al., 1997
Osteosarcoma cells (ROS 17/2.8)	Reduction in cell spread area and vinculin spot area, actin and focal adhesion, and stress fibers	12 and 24 h	Guignandon et al., 2003
Breast cancer (MCF-7)	Disoriented microtubule	1.5 h	Vassy et al., 2003
Thyroid cancer (ML-1)	Actin fiber reorganization	Parabola flight	Ulbrich et al., 2011
Human macrophages	No effect on cytoskeletal structure	11 days	Tauber et al., 2017
Human chondrocytes	Effect on cell cytoplasm, microtubule network disruption, loss of stress fibers, actin fiber reorganization.	Parabola flight	Aleshcheva et al., 2015
Osteoblasts (MC3T3-E1)	Reduction in actin cytoskeletal stress fibers and reduction of nuclei size by 30%	4 days	Hughes-Fulford and Lewis, 1996
Primary mouse osteoblasts	Thicker microtubule, smaller focal adhesion spots, reduction in actin stress fibers, and increase in cell spread area	5 days	Nabavi et al., 2011
Osteocytes	Increase in cellular organelles including Golgi complex, vacuoles, and vesicles	14 days	Rodionova et al., 2002