Fig. 7. Differences in maternal behavior during maltreatment do not align with altered pup cortical processing of maternal behavior.

The typical sequence of maternal behavior does not change between control and adversity-rearing: pups are left alone in the nest as the mother attends to her biological needs. Upon returning to the nest, the mother adjusts bedding, moves, and grooms pups as she begins to nurse. During most of nursing, pups are non-nutritively nursing, which is interrupted periodically by a milk ejection, which produces a robust stretch reflex in pups. Although low bedding induces increased rough handling by mothers (gray border) upon entering/exiting nest, specific maternal nurturing behaviors (red) were associated with the most robust differences in pups’ cortical reactivity between the control and low bedding groups. Please see Supplementary Materials for expanded discussion of mother–pup interaction within nest.