Table 5. Stimulation methods of different cell types for promoting tenogenesis and tendon healing.
| Cell types | Stimulation methods | Conditions | Results | Author | Year |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tenocytes | Mechanical stimulation | 1 Hz rate and 8% strain for 2 h/day | Enhances tenocyte differentiation | Wu YF | 2017 |
| Biological factor | TGF- β1 | Improves tenocyte differentiation and ECM | Theiss F | 2015 | |
| Ascorbic acid + thyroid hormone T3 | Promotes tenocyte proliferation | di Giacomo V | 2017 | ||
| Glycine | Enhances the production of ECM | Vieira CP | 2018 | ||
| Platelet-rich plasma | Enhances tenocyte proliferation | Alzyoud JAM | 2019 | ||
| IGF-1 | Improves tenocyte proliferation | Disser NP | 2019 | ||
| Dermal fibroblasts | Con-culture with scaffolds | Nanofiber scaffold | Promotes tenogenesis in vitro and enhances tendon regeneration in vivo | Wang W | 2016 |
| Aligned polycaprolactone/silk fibroin nanofiber scaffold | Repairs the gap defects of Achilles tendons in vivo and effectively restores the function and structure of tendons | Chen CH | 2017 | ||
| Hierarchical electrospun tendon-ligament bioinspired scaffold | Increases maximum load of tissue-engineered tendon | Sensini A | 2019 | ||
| Static mechanical strain | Moved 2 mm to the right side weekly in order to maintain the traction force | Enhances tendon formation using HDFs in vitro | Nakanishi Y | 2019 | |
| ESCs | Dynamic mechanical stress | 1 HZ, 10% for 2 h/day | Induces tendon differentiation | Chen X | 2012 |
| Biological factor | BMP12/13, ascorbic acid | Induces tendon differentiation | Dale TP | 2018 | |
| iPSCs | – | – | – | – | – |
| BMSCs | Cyclical uniaxial stretch | 1 Hz rate and 8% strain | Promotes the tenogenesis of BMSCs and protein and gene expression | Nam HY | 2019 |
| Biological factor | CTGF + TGF-β1 | Promotes tenogenesis of BMSCs | Yin Z | 2016 | |
| VEGF + BMP12/14 | Enhances the BMSC tenogenic differentiation | Bottagisio M | 2017 | ||
| Myostatin | Increases BMSC’s growth and tenogenesis of BMSCs | Le W and Yao J | 2017 | ||
| BMP14 | Induces the tenogenic differentiation of BMSCs | Wang D | 2018 | ||
| ADSCs | Physical stimulation | Uniaxial tensile cyclic loading (2% strain and 0.1 Hz frequency) | Induces tenogenic differentiation of ADSCs | Subramanian G | 2017 |
| Extracorporeal shock waves | Improves differentiation of ADSCs toward tenoblast-like cells | Rinella L | 2018 | ||
| Biological factor | Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 | Improves the tenogenesis of ADSCs | Yu Y | 2016 | |
| Basic fibroblast growth factor + IGF-1 + PDGF-BB | Improve cellular proliferation of ASCs | Farnebo S | 2017 | ||
| CTGF | Promotes early flexor tendon healing in vivo | Shen H | 2018 | ||
| PDGF-BB | Promotes the proliferation of ADSCs in vitro and upregulated the expression of tendon-related genes |
Chen QJ | 2018 | ||
| Tendon ECM components | Enhances the proliferation and tenogenesis of ADSCs | Yang G | 2017 | ||
| TNMD | Induces tenogenic lineage differentiation of ADSCs | Goncalves AI | 2018 | ||
| TDSCs | Mechanical stimulation | 6% strain, 0.25 Hz, 8 h, followed by 16 h rest | Enhances tenogenic-specific differentiation | Wang T | 2018 |
| Biological factor | Fibroblasts ECM | Promotes proliferation and tenogenesis of ADSCs | Jiang D | 2014 | |
| Biglycan | Promotes tenogenic differentiation | Zhang YJ | 2019 | ||
| Hepatocyte growth factor | Promotes TDSCs proliferation and Migration and inhibits osteogenic differentiation | Han P | 2019 | ||
| CTGF + ascorbic acid | Inhibits osteogenic differentiation | Lui PP | 2016 | ||
| Histone deacetylase inhibitor | Promotes proliferation and upregulates the expression of tendon-related genes | Zhang C | 2018 |
ESCs, embryonic stem cells; iPSCs, induced pluripotent stem cells; MSCs, mesenchymal stromal cells; BMSCs, bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells; ADSCs, adipose-derived stem cells; TDSCs, tendon-derived stem cells; BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; TGF, transforming growth factor; CTGF, connective tissue growth factor; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; BMP, bone morphogenetic protein; IGF, insulin-like growth factor; PDGF-BB, platelet-derived growth factor-BB; ECM, extracellular matrix.