Table 2. Association between maternal gluten intake during pregnancy (n = 86,306) or the child’s intake at 18 months (n = 66,725) and the risk of type 1 diabetes in the child.
| Gluten intake | Cases | Incidence rate (per 100,000) | HR (95% CI) of type 1 diabetes | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unadjusted | p-Value | Adjusted model 1* | p-Value | Adjusted model 2† (primary model) | p-Value | Adjusted model 3‡ | p-Value | |||
| Maternal/pregnancy | ||||||||||
| Continuous, per 10-g/day increase | 346 | 36.6 | 1.04 (0.86–1.27) | 0.68 | 1.02 (0.81–1.30) | 0.84 | 1.02 (0.73–1.43) | 0.91 | 1.01 (0.71–1.42) | 0.97 |
| By category | ||||||||||
| <7.6 g/day | 23 | 22.3 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| 7.6–9.5 g/day | 45 | 42.6 | 1.90 (1.13–3.18) | 0.01 | 1.90 (1.13–3.20) | 0.01 | 1.71 (0.94–3.09) | 0.08 | 1.65 (0.91–3.00) | 0.10 |
| 9.5–13.0 g/day | 102 | 32.0 | 1.42 (0.89–2.27) | 0.14 | 1.44 (0.90–2.31) | 0.13 | 1.37 (0.79–2.37) | 0.26 | 1.32 (0.76–2.30) | 0.32 |
| 13.0–17.3 g/day | 99 | 31.1 | 1.39 (0.87–2.22) | 0.17 | 1.39 (0.84–2.29) | 0.18 | 1.23 (0.67–2.26) | 0.51 | 1.20 (0.65–2.20) | 0.56 |
| 17.3–20.1 g/day | 42 | 39.5 | 1.76 (1.04–2.96) | 0.03 | 1.81 (1.04–3.16) | 0.04 | 1.50 (0.75–2.98) | 0.25 | 1.41 (0.71–2.82) | 0.33 |
| >20.1 g/day | 55 | 32.7 | 1.45 (0.85–2.49) | 0.18 | 1.44 (0.78–2.63) | 0.23 | 1.60 (0.75–3.39) | 0.22 | 1.56 (0.73–3.33) | 0.24 |
| ptrend | 0.43 | 0.45 | 0.53 | 0.55 | ||||||
| Child/18 months of life | ||||||||||
| Continuous, per 10-g/day increase | 262 | 35.9 | 1.44 (1.05–1.98) | 0.03 | 1.44 (1.05–1.98) | 0.02 | 1.46 (1.06–2.01) | 0.02 | 1.41 (1.01–1.96) | 0.04 |
| By category | ||||||||||
| <4.8 g/day | 19 | 26.3 | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| 4.8–5.8 g/day | 25 | 34.3 | 1.32 (0.72–2.44) | 0.37 | 1.32 (0.72–2.43) | 0.37 | 1.30 (0.71–2.40) | 0.39 | 1.37 (0.73–2.56) | 0.32 |
| 5.8–8.2 g/day | 77 | 34.9 | 1.35 (0.81–2.26) | 0.25 | 1.34 (0.80–2.25) | 0.26 | 1.33 (0.80–2.23) | 0.27 | 1.40 (0.82–2.37) | 0.22 |
| 8.2–11.4 g/day | 76 | 34.7 | 1.25 (0.74–2.10) | 0.40 | 1.24 (0.74–2.10) | 0.41 | 1.24 (0.74–2.09) | 0.42 | 1.24 (0.73–2.11) | 0.43 |
| 11.4–13.5 g/day | 30 | 41.2 | 1.61 (0.89–2.90) | 0.11 | 1.60 (0.89–2.89) | 0.12 | 1.61 (0.89–2.91) | 0.11 | 1.58 (0.87–2.89) | 0.14 |
| >13.5 g/day | 35 | 48.2 | 1.84 (1.04–3.27) | 0.04 | 1.85 (1.04–3.28) | 0.04 | 1.86 (1.05–3.30) | 0.03 | 1.86 (1.04–3.34) | 0.04 |
| ptrend | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.07 | ||||||
*Model 1 (as in Antvorskov and colleagues [14]): adjusted for maternal age, prepregnant maternal BMI, parity, smoking during pregnancy, education, cesarean section, breastfeeding, sex, and energy intake.
†Model 2 (primary model): as model 1 with additional adjustment for birth weight, age at gluten introduction, prematurity, fibre intake, weight gain 0–12 months, and child’s or mother’s gluten intake (mutually adjusted exposures).
‡Model 3: as model 2 with additional adjustment for child coeliac disease.
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence interval; HR, hazard ratio; Ref., Reference category