TABLE 2.
Summary of cohort studies on workplace support among CWW.
| Author and year | Sample population | Sample size | Research design | Country | Psychosocial work environment measure | Key findings |
| Aguiniga et al. (2013) | Child protection service | 2903 | Quantitative | United States | Intention to leave, positive mood about work, collegiate support | Positive mood about work and collegiate support both predicted intention to leave. Gender, race, and age all significant predictors of workers’ intention to leave |
| Antonopoulou et al. (2017) | Child protection service | 193 | Quantitative | United Kingdom | Psychological distress and anxiety, work enabling conditions, social support at work, job autonomy, and decision-making | Low levels of stress reported. Reports of positive association between stress and job clarity, control, as well as management and social support at work |
| Augsberger et al. (2012) | Voluntary public child welfare | 538 | Mixed methods | United States | Turnover, organizational support, fair salary and benefits, fair promotion potential, adequate communication, and appreciation | Workers perceptions of respect in the workplace predict turnover intentions. This is further broken down into five sub-themes of organizational support, fair salary and benefits, fair promotion potential, adequate communication, and appreciation or contingent rewards |
| Baldschun et al. (2016) | Child protection social workers | 364 | Quantitative | Finland | Well-being (affective, cognitive, social, personal, professional, and psychosomatic), supportive work environment | Findings suggest that affective well-being as well as an open and supportive work environment is crucial to any occupational well-being of employees |
| Barak et al. (2006) | Child welfare workers | 418 | Mixed methods | United States | Perceptions of fairness, inclusion–exclusion, social support, stress, well-being, commitment, job satisfaction, and intentions to leave | Findings suggest that stressful, unfair, non-inclusive/supportive organizational climate, as well as various individual characteristics negatively influence employees’ well-being. This leads to job dissatisfaction and lower commitment, which further lead to employees’ intentions to leave the organization |
| Barbee et al. (2009) | Child welfare workers | 15 | Qualitative | United States | Turnover correlates, supervision, colleagues support | Respondents reported that the search for a more lucrative position, lack of supervision, stress, and the lack of support from colleagues were some of the reasons they left their earlier jobs |
| Baugerud et al. (2018) | Child protection workers | 506 | Quantitative | Norway | Quantitative demands, role expectations, control over work intensity, stress, predictability of work, burnout, social interaction and support, work-life balance, secondary traumatic stress, compassion satisfaction | Findings showed the prevalence of moderate symptoms level of stress-related issues of burnout and secondary traumatic stress. Furthermore, respondents equally reported a moderate compassion satisfaction level. Findings are contrary to results from earlier studies |
| Biggart et al. (2017) | Child and family social workers | 52 | Qualitative | United Kingdom | Emotional experiences, team physical and work environment, supervision, and information support | Reports of reflective supervision, socio-affective needs, and sharing of emotional experiences with colleagues |
| Bride (2007) | Protective service workers | 187 | Quantitative | United States | Secondary traumatic stress, peer support, administrative support, turnover intention, professional experience, and workload | Secondary traumatic stress was associated with workers’ personal trauma history, peer support, administrative support, turnover intention, professional experience, and workload. |
| Chen and Scannapieco (2010) | Protective service workers | 453 | Quantitative | United States | Turnover, self-efficacy, supervisor support, job satisfaction | Main effect of job satisfaction, supervisor support, and self-efficacy on employee’s turnover intentions |
| Chenot et al. (2009) | Public child welfare workers | 767 | Quantitative | United States | Organizational culture, supervisor support, turnover intention, retention | Longevity decisions are mostly important the first 3 years of service. Supervisor and peer support both predicted retention. Supervisor support had a stronger effect than peer support, and supervisor support effects cut across the entire samples |
| Cohen-Callow et al. (2009) | Child welfare workers | 561 | Quantitative | United States | Career commitment, climate, commitment, supervisor/coworker support, job withdrawal, job satisfaction, stress | Reports of lower job and work withdrawal by older respondents. The association between withdrawal and commitment varied across age. Experience of stress best predicts job and work withdrawal |
| Csiernik et al. (2010) | Child protection workers | 13 | Mixed methods | Canada | Hope, social support, anxiety levels associated with clients, resilience | Findings show the prevalence of anxiety toward clients, the work group, as well as employees’ own ability. Reports of various types of stressful incidents. Respondents also reports experiences of resilience and social support |
| Curry et al. (2005) | Protective service workers | 441 | Quantitative | United States | Case load, supervisor support, retention | Experience, gender, and education were associated with staff retention. Supervisor support and the overall transfer potential, as well as application planning transfer were all positively associated with transfer |
| Dagan et al. (2016) | Child protection workers | 124 | Quantitative | Israel | Secondary traumatic stress, mastery, social support, effectiveness of supervision, role stress, traumatic experiences | Reports of high level of secondary traumatic experiences. Findings also show that role stress contributed significantly to secondary traumatic experiences. A positive association was also found between employees’ experiences and secondary traumatization |
| Davis-Sacks et al. (1985) | Child welfare workers | 62 | Quantitative | United States | Supervisor support, coworker support, spouse support, mental health problems, burnout | Most of the respondents report experiencing support from spouse, coworker, and supervisors. Except self-esteem, coworker support is not significantly associated with burnout and mental health problems |
| Dickinson and Perry (2002) | Public child welfare workers | 235 | Quantitative | United States | Job roles, responsibilities, caseload, job satisfaction, social/supervisory support, turnover intentions, work conditions, burnout, stress | Respondents who intend to leave or already left cited several reasons for this decision. Stress, dissatisfaction with the work environment, changes in career goals, and availability of other jobs were the four most important reasons |
| Fernandes (2016) | Child welfare workers | 359 | Quantitative | United States | Turnover intention, organizational support, workload | Perceptions of organizational justice, organizational support, workload, and job importance predicted workers’ turnover intentions |
| Festinger and Baker (2010) | Child welfare personnel | 253 | Quantitative | United States | Childhood trauma, self-esteem, satisfaction with life, sense of social support | Significant associations were found between experienced childhood emotional maltreatment and the three well-being measures (i.e. self-esteem, satisfaction with life, and sense of social support). Findings showed a prevalence of 30% reported rate of recall for childhood emotional abuse. Emotional abuse report was more prominent among female respondents |
| Fryer et al. (1989) | Child protection workers | 300 | Quantitative | United States | Attrition, intentions to leave, coworker support, stress, anxiety, commitment | Findings show high reports of both stress and coworker support. The professional aspects of child protection were positively associated with work commitment. Intentions to leave were also associated with reports of resentment, anxiety, helplessness, and regrets for joining the field |
| Fryer et al. (1988) | Child protection workers | 301 | Quantitative | United States | Workload, compensation, attitudes to work, coworker support, job dissatisfaction | Findings show reports of high workload and effort-reward imbalance. Respondents also report high coworker support. Work experience with child welfare service is positively associated with job dissatisfaction |
| Griffiths and Royse (2017) | Former CWS workers | 54 | Mixed methods | United States | Turnover, job dissatisfaction, work experience, workload, lack of respect, organizational support | Job dissatisfaction, work experience, workload, lack of respect, organizational support was all associated with turnover |
| He et al. (2018) | Child welfare workers | 1917 | Quantitative | United States | Burnout, demands, resources, supervision, and peer support, workload | Job demands, supervision, and peer support were positively associated with client-related burnout |
| Healy et al. (2009) | Child welfare workers | 58 | Qualitative | Australia | Turnover, stress, effort-reward imbalance, support | Reports of high inexperience coupled with high workload. Experienced employees not motivated to go into the field. High stress contributing to turnover. Absence of support and developmental opportunities. Reports of a blaming culture, low reward, and lack of respect for staffs |
| Hermon and Chahla (2019) | Child welfare workers | 160 | Quantitative | United States | Stress, child-related stress, visit-related stress, workload stress, satisfaction, client relationships, work-life flexibility, growth and support, perceptions of caseload, turnover, retention | Findings showed that the experience of high level of stress predicts turnover among employees. Results also showed that job stress has damaging effects on the stayers |
| Hunt et al. (2016) | Child protection workers | 423 | Quantitative | United Kingdom | Violence, support, supervision | Respondents reported experiencing threats or violence from parents. Some respondents also reported not receiving sufficient support and supervision from the management. Making situations worse as opposed to bettering them |
| Jacquet et al. (2008) | Fresh CWS graduates | 765 | Quantitative | United States | Turnover intention, Supervisor support | Supervisor support was strongly associated with workers intent to leave |
| Jayaratne et al. (1986) | Child welfare workers | 238 | Quantitative | United States | Work stress, strain, emotional support, mental health, job satisfaction, burnout | Findings suggest that employees reported high rate of burnout also scored higher on mental health issues, lower on marital satisfaction, and somatic complaints. Reports of burnout were also significantly (negative) associated with perception of support both from supervisors and colleagues |
| Juhasz and Skivenes (2018) | Child welfare workers | 474 | Vignette experiment | United States, Finland, England, Norway | Caseloads, management/organizational factors, cooperation factors | Time/caseloads factors were the most common among respondents across countries. Respondents also reported experiencing management/organizational constraints regarding proper decision-making. Other cited constrains are threshold/evidence issues and cooperation with other bodies |
| Juby and Scannapieco (2007) | Child welfare workers | 350 | Quantitative | United States | Workload satisfaction, support, resources, worker ability | Availability of resources was found to be the most influencing variable. Availability of resources was associated with workload satisfaction and worker ability. Supervisor support was also associated with workload satisfaction |
| Kim and Hopkins (2015) | Child welfare workers | 435 | Quantitative | United States | Organizational commitment, safety concerns and unsafe climate, coworker support, leader–member exchange, role conflict, and clarity | Findings showed that unsafe organizational climate was negatively associated with organizational commitment. This relationship is further strengthened among employees who experienced low quality of LMX |
| Kim et al. (2018) | Child welfare workers | 1244 | Quantitative | United States | Supervisory support, worker’s role, work experience, workload | Findings show that the perception of supervisory support significantly decreased up until the 12 years work experience mark; and it significantly changes course after this period maintaining a curve linear with a U-shaped curve. Results support the assumption that frontline workers have varying needs of support according to their developmental stages |
| Kruzich et al. (2014) | Public child welfare workers | 1040 | Quantitative | United States | Perceived organizational support, perceived supervisor support, team psychological safety, intentions to stay | Findings showed that both human resource primacy, as well as empowering and supportive leadership style, influenced employees’ stays intentions through the mediating role of psychological safety |
| Landsman (2001) | Child welfare workers | 1133 | Quantitative | United States | Turnover intention, job stressors, perceived agency support, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, workload | Perceived agency support is associated with organizational commitment. Workload has significant effect on organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover intention |
| Landsman (2008) | Public child welfare workers | 497 | Quantitative | United States | Organizational commitment, Service orientation, job safety, role ambiguity, distributive justice, supervisor support | Service orientation, job safety, role ambiguity, distributive justice, supervisor support, were all associated with workers commitment |
| Lee et al. (2017) | Child welfare workers | 104 51 | Mixed methods | United States | Coping strategies, work stress, supervisor support, caseload | Findings showed reports of high caseload and lack of time, spillover of work stress to family life, and lack of supervisor support and disregard for child welfare workers’ self-care needs. Additionally, respondents reported the use of negative coping strategies like alcohol, drugs, and denial |
| Littlechild et al. (2016) | Child welfare workers | 590 | Mixed methods | United Kingdom | Aggression, violence, work-life balance, roles, support at work, anxiety | Findings showed that respondents experience plethora of violence and aggression resulting into anxiety, depression, disturbed sleep, sleeplessness, and panic attacks. Others reported that they have been forced to change addresses, cars and names. Several (38%) of the respondents also reported insufficient support at work |
| Lizano and Barak (2012) | Public child welfare workers | 335 | Quantitative | United States | Job stress, work-family conflict, emotional exhaustion, organizational support | Organizational tenure, job stress, and work-family conflict were associated with emotional exhaustion development. Age, work-family conflict, and organizational support were related to the development of depersonalization |
| Lovseth (2017) | Child welfare workers | 142 | Quantitative | Norway | Confidentiality as a barrier for support, coping, proximity to clients | Findings suggests that clients confidentiality can influence the child welfare employee’s personal support system. Results also showed a marked difference between experienced child welfare employees and the ones that are relatively new to the workforce |
| Madden et al. (2014) | Public child welfare workers | 9195 | Quantitative | United States | Turnover, retention, organizational support | Gender, social work education, position, organizational support, and job desirability were found to significantly influence workers’ decisions to stay on the job |
| Barak et al. (2006) | Child welfare workers | 418 | Mixed methods | United States | Perceptions of fairness, social support, inclusion–exclusion, organizational stress, well-being, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, turnover intentions | Findings showed that job satisfaction, low organizational commitment, younger age, high stress and exclusion from the organizational decision-making processes were all the strongest predictors of turnover. Furthermore, results suggested that experiencing a stressful, unjust, exclusionary and non-supportive organizational climate, with various individual characteristics could negatively influence employees’ well-being and job satisfaction. This can further lead to stronger turnover intentions |
| Morazes et al. (2010) | Child welfare social workers | 386 | Qualitative | United States | Retention, workload, support from colleagues | Findings showed that respondents have trouble with heavy workloads, time pressure, and hindrances from carrying out “true social work functions.” Additionally, there were marked differences between the stayers and the leavers in the level of reported support from colleagues |
| O’Donnell and Kirkner (2009) | Public child welfare workers | 267 | Quantitative | United States | Burnout, role conflict, supervision, commitment, job satisfaction, supervisor support, retention | Demographics variables were not significantly associated with employees’ retention. Measuring retention in two separate years shows a variance in the influence of factors like commitment, role conflict, burnout, supervisor support, and job satisfaction |
| Radey et al. (2018) | Child welfare workers | 38 | Qualitative | United States | Support | Findings showed that employees experience support in its type (instrumental or expressive) and source (family, coworker, supervisor, and friends) |
| Salloum et al. (2015) | Child welfare workers | 104 | Quantitative | United States | Burnout, secondary trauma, compassion satisfaction | Trauma-informed self-care was associated with higher levels of compassion satisfaction and lower levels of burnout |
| Salloum et al. (2018) | Child welfare workers | 177 | Quantitative | United States | Compassion satisfaction, secondary traumatic stress, burnout, psychological well-being, support | Utilizing organizational resources, organizational practices, and professional self-care were all negatively associated with secondary traumatic stress and burnout. Additionally, positively associated with psychological well-being, compassion satisfaction, and organizational resources provided |
| Scannapieco and Connell-Carrick (2007) | Child welfare workers (former and current) | 1283/598 | Quantitative | United States | Training, turnover, support | The two groups are similar in work experience, assessment of physical and sexual abuse. Transition to practice, training, and supervisor support were associated with turnover |
| Schelbe et al. (2017) | Child welfare workers | 38 | Qualitative | United States | Stressors, unsupportive colleagues, workload, job satisfaction | Workers reported high job satisfaction. They also reported stressors in through; administrative requirements, workload, unsupportive colleagues, and challenging clients |
| Smith (2005) | Child welfare workers | 296 | Quantitative | United States | Work-life balance, perceived organizational support, job clarity, job commitment, retention | Employees who considered quitting at Time 1 were more likely to have done so by Time 2. Supervisor support and organizational level variables were found to be associated with employees’ retention |
| Tham and Meagher (2009) | Child welfare workers | 309 | Quantitative | Sweden | Demands, role clarity, role conflict, support, social climate | Reports of high job demands and greater control regarding decision-making. Additionally, high role conflict and less role clarity than the comparison group |
| Travis and Mor Barak (2010) | Child welfare workers | 359 | Quantitative | United States | Role conflict, stress, and ambiguity | Workers differed in their voice, neglect, and exit responses by gender, ethnicity, job level, and job tenure. Neglect and exit were positively related to role stress. Workers with high sense of psychological well-being were less likely to report exit- and neglect-related efforts |
| Westbrook et al. (2006) | Public child welfare workers | 21 | Qualitative | United States | Personal and organizational factors involved in employees retention, supervision and support, commitment | Findings point toward the importance of establishing an organizational climate and culture that prioritizes the care of children and families in need. Close monitoring, supervision, and support will boost new employees’ commitment. Recognition of hard work was also found to increase retention among employees |
| Williams et al. (2011) | Public child welfare workers | 260 | Mixed methods | United States | Turnover, coworker support, reasonable workloads, opportunities for advancement, supervisor support, valuing employees, and organizational commitment | Better salaries, coworker support, reasonable workloads, opportunities for advancement, supervisor support, valuing employees, and organizational commitment were all associated with turnover |
| Wu et al. (2013) | Public child welfare workers | 573 | Quantitative | United States | Work-life balance, Organizational support | Organizational support, job value, work time, and income were all associated with work-life balance |
| Yankeelov et al. (2009) | Protective service workers | 723 | Quantitative | United States | Turnover, retention, social provisions, supervisor support, workplace environment, | Turnover estimates range from 14 to 36% for first to third years, respectively. Stayers and leavers do not differ in race and gender |