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Phage structures on a variety of substrates before and after polylysine treatment. Before polylysine treatment, M13 phages are assembled into nanoridges and nanogrooves on glass and gold substrate with less organized structure, whereas no phage patterns were found on titanium, silicon, plastic, and stainless steel substrate. After the polylysine pretreatment, phages formed highly ordered NiM structures on all of substrates. Red arrow indicated the pulling direction.
