Table 5.
Effects, mechanism, and process of increasing bioavailability of cereals and pseudo-cereal grains.
| Crop | Effects | Mechanism | Process to increase bioavailability | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Finger millet | Reduction in viscosity of weaning food | NA | Malting | Seenappa (1988) |
| Eliminate stickiness of cooked millet | NA | Parboiling | Desikachar (1975) | |
| Flour quality can be increased | NA | Decortication | Geervani and Eggum (1989) | |
| Loss of protein, mineral, and fiber content | NA | Dehulling, soaking, and cooking | Panwal and Pawar (1989) | |
| Increase in in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) | NA | Dehulling of seeds | Ramachandra et al. (1977) | |
| Effective removal of polyphenols and phytates | NA | Dehulling followed by soaking | Pawar and Parlikar (1990) | |
| Improve recovery of soluble protein and its digestibility in vitro | NA | |||
| Foxtail millet | Significant increase in extractability of calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, and copper | NA | Roasting | Gahlawat and Sehgal (1995) |
| Digestibility and biological values increased | NA | Fortified with lysine | Ganapathy et al. (1957) | |
| Highest concentration of thiamine, vitamin E, and stearic and linoleic acid | NA | NA | Bandyopadhyay et al. (2017) | |
| Loss of protein, mineral, and fiber content | NA | Dehulling/soaking/cooking | Pawar and Machewad (2006) | |
| Increase in percentage of ionizable iron and soluble zinc | By the removal of polyphenols and breaking down of polyphenols-protein-minerals | |||
| Two types of fatty acid patterns observed | Glutinous and non-glutinous varieties | NA | Taira (1984) | |
| High amount of protein (11%) and fat (4%). The protein fractions are represented by albumins and globulins (13%), prolamins (39.4%), and glutelins (9.9%). It is thus recommended as an ideal food for diabetics. | NA | NA | Saleh et al. (2013) | |
| Quinoa | Higher lysine and methionine content | NA | NA | Bhargava et al. (2003) |
| Increased protein efficiency ratio (PER) | NA | Cooking | Mahoney et al. (1975) | |
| Increased in vitro digestibility | NA | Cooking, autoclaving, drum drying | Ruales and Nair (1993a) | |
| Changes in total dietary fiber content | NA | Thermal treatment | ||
| Decreased oil absorption capacity of quinoa flour | NA | Adding salt | Ogungbenle (2003) | |
| Rich source of antioxidants | NA | NA | Debski et al. (2013) | |
| Considered as golden grain because of its nutritional properties. Thus, NASA integrated this into the food of astronauts. | NA | NA | Rojas et al. (2010) | |
| Helps to reduce fatty acid uptake and esterification in adipocyte | NA | NA | Foucault et al. (2012) | |
| Significant impact on the chemical profile of quinoa flour | NA | Extrusion and roasting | Brady et al. (2007) | |
| Helps to degrade phytate in flour | Degradation of phytate in pseudo-cereal flours may depend on the activation of endogenous phytase and on the production of exogenous phytase by starter culture | Fermentation | Castro-Alba et al. (2019) | |
| Improved mineral availability of flours | Fermentation with Lactobacillus plantarum | Fermentation | ||
| Higher level of phytate degradation in quinoa grains | NA | Abrasion process to eliminate saponins | ||
| Rich source of phytoecdysteroids | NA | NA | Kumpun et al. (2011) | |
| Anabolic, performance enhancing, anti-osteoporotic, wound-healing properties | Phytoecdysteroids | NA | Graf et al. (2014) | |
| Reduction in phytate content | NA | Germination, cooking, and fermentation | Valencia et al. (1999) | |
| Increased iron solubility | NA | Soaking and germination | ||
| Amaranth | Reduces bioavailability of calcium and magnesium | Oxalates | Cooking/popping | Arêas et al. (2016) |
| Presence of antinutritional factors | ||||
| Reduces bioavailability of carbohydrates | Inhibition of amylases contributing to the reduction of glucose levels in blood | |||
| Reduction in blood cholesterol level | Decrease the solubility of cholesterol micelles by Amaranth oil | |||
| High-protein amaranth flour (HPAF) | enzymatic hydrolysis | Liquefaction/saccharification | Guzmán-Maldonado and Paredes-López (1998) | |
| Improves grain nutrient profile | NA | Malting/germination | Hejazi et al. (2016) | |
| Increases availability of proteins as well as free amino acid components | NA | Sprouting | Paredes-Lopez and Mora-Escobedo (1989) | |
| Reduction in antinutrient content, increases amino acids, carbohydrates, fibers, polyphenol content, and antioxidant potential | NA | Germination | Gamel et al. (2006) | |
| Best way to maintain (and even improve) amaranth nutritional values | NA | Germinated flour at 30°C during 78 h of germination | Perales-Sánchez et al. (2014) | |
| Quick digestion of starch content and increase in glycemic index | NA | Grinding/roasting | Capriles et al. (2008) | |
| Buck wheat | Increases acceptability score of biscuits | Addition of buck wheat flour | NA | Baljeet et al. (2010) |
| Rich source of nutraceutical compounds | NA | NA | Li and Zhang (2001) | |
| Higher lysine, iron, copper, and magnesium content | NA | NA | Ikeda and Yamashita (1994) | |
| Antioxidant potential | NA | NA | Oomah and Mazza (1996) | |
| Reduced starch digestibility, lowering of glycemic index, anticholesterolemic properties of protein fraction, well-balanced amino acid composition, and good source of dietary fiber and minerals, | NA | NA | Pomeranz and Robbins (1972); Kayashita et al. (1997); Skrabanja and Kreft (1998); Tomotake et al. (2000); Skrabanja et al. (2001); Steadman et al. (2001a; 2001b); (Ikeda et al. (2006); | |
| Reducing high blood pressure, lowering cholesterol, controlling blood sugar, and preventing cancer risk | NA | NA | Fabjan et al. (2003) | |
| Improved capillary fragility, retarded development of diabetes, anti-lipoperoxidant activities, anti-cancer activity, anti-hyperglycemic effect, protective effects against hemoglobin oxidation, a mitigation effect on cardiovascular diseases, anti-oxidative property, anti-mutagenic activity, anti-inflammatory activity, mitigation of diabetes, suppression of protein glycation, anti-platelet formation property, anti-angiogenic effect, neuroprotective effect | NA | NA | Griffith et al. (1944); He et al. (1985); Odetti et al. (1990); Nègre-Salvayre et al. (1991); Deschner et al. (1991); Wang et al. (1992); Grinberg et al. (1994); Oomah and Mazza (1996); Aheme and O'Brien (1999); Guardia et al. (2001); Je et al. (2002); Nagasawa et al. (2003); Sheu et al. (2004); Guruvayoorappan and Kuttan (2007); Pu et al. (2007) | |
| Thiamin-binding proteins (TBP) isolated from buckwheat | Serve as B1 vitamin transporters in the plant and stabilize it during technological processing | NA | Mitsunaga et al. (1986) | |
| Improvement of true digestibility | NA | Hypothermal transformations | Christa and Soral-Śmietana (2008) | |
| Increased antioxidative potential | NA | Honey obtained from buckwheat flowers | Gheldof et al. (2003) | |
| Induced apoptosis in leukemia cells (0.5–100 μg/ml, in vitro), induced apoptosis in human solid tumor cells (6.25–50.00 μg/ml) | Buckwheat trypsin inhibitor | NA | Park and Ohba (2004); Wang et al. (2007) | |
| Coarse type of flour (mainly responsible for producing acceptable flavor) and a fine type of flour (responsible for binding particles to each other that are present in the buckwheat flour) are produced | Important for preparing buckwheat noodles with high palatability and acceptability rather than modern milling with a roll milling machine | Traditional stone milling | Ikeda and Ikeda (2016) | |
| Increased resistant starch contents | NA | Cooking | Kreft and Skrabanja (2002) | |
| Reduced glycemic index | Formation of amylase-resistant starch produced by heating | Cooking | Skrabanja et al. (2000) |