Table 6.

Anti-nutrients and processes to decrease anti-nutritional activity in minor-millets and pseudo-cereals.

Crop	Anti-nutrients	Processes to decrease effects	References
Finger millet	Phytate content	Seed germination decreases phytic acid High temperature short time (HTST) process reduces anti nutrients	Nirmala et al. (2000); Kumar et al. (2018)
	Tannins	Germination (leaching and soaking) reduces tannins Boiling and pressure cooking can reduce tannins	Nirmala et al. (2000); Platel et al. (2010); Platel and Srinivasan (2016); Kumar et al. (2018)
	Polyphenols and phytates	Dehulling followed by soaking	Pawar and Parlikar (1990)
	Phytates, phenols, tannins	Decortications, milling, soaking, malting, germination, fermentation, popping and cooking	Shibairo et al. (2014)
	Polyphenols	Thermal/hydrothermal treatments, germination, decortication and fermentation	Subba Rao and Muralikrishna (2002)
	Phytates, tannins	Germination, fermentation	Hemalatha et al. (2007a); Platel and Srinivasan (2016)
	Phytate	Treatment with fungal phytase	Hemalatha et al. (2007b)
	Tannin, phytic acid, oxalic acid	Popping	Mishra et al. (2014)
	Phytates, polyphenols, tannins	Soaking, germination, steaming, fermentation	Sripriya et al. (1997)
	Phytates, polyphenols, tannins Phytates	Malting	Platel et al. (2010)
		Decortication	Krishnan et al. (2012)
		Germination	Tatala et al. (2007)
	Phenolic acids	Sprouting, pressure cooking, open pan-boiling, microwave heating	Hithamani and Srinivasan (2014)
Foxtail millet	Phytate, tannin, polyphenols	Dehulling, soaking, cooking	Pawar and Machewad (2006)
	Phytate	Thermal processing, mechanical processing (decortication, milling and sieving), soaking, fermentation, germination, malting,	Hotz and Gibson (2007)
	Phytate	Germination, soaking, puffing, fermentation, enzymatic hydrolysis	Saleh et al. (2013)
	Polyphenols	Germination and steaming	Mounika et al. (2017)
	Phenolic compounds	Fermentation, malting and steeping, thermal processing	Kaur et al. (2019)
	Phytic acid	Roasting	Gahlawat and Sehgal (1994)
Quinoa	Saponins	Repeated washing or dehulling after harvest. Extrusion and roasting techniques. Wet technique: Strong washing in cold alkaline water. Dry technique: heat treatment, extrusion, roasting, mechanic abrasion Wet technique is recommended as dry technique by abrasive peeling can allow the loss of protein, vitamins and minerals	Koziol (1990); Mastebroek et al. (2000); Dini et al. (2001); Brady et al. (2007); Comai et al. (2007); Spehar (2007); Farro (2008); Paśko et al. (2009); Jancurová et al. (2009); Ruiz et al. (2017); Maradini et al. (2017)
	Phytate compound in grains	Soaking, germination, fermentation and cooking decrease phytate compound	Ruales and Nair, 1993a; Hurrell, 2004; Umeta et al., 2005; Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al., 2010; Lazarte et al., 2015; Iglesias-Puig et al., 2015
	Phytic acid	Similar process as for reducing saponin as brushing and rinsing can reduce around 30%. Fermentation and cooking can degrade the activation of phytase	Ruales and Nair (1993b); Oliveira et al. (2003); Khattab and Arntfield (2009)
	Tannins	Cleaning and rinsing in water Adequate washing (to cook) can reduce the harmful effect	Chauhan et al. (1992); Jancurová et al. (2009); Borges et al. (2010)
	Trypsin inhibitor	Heat treatment, boiling, roasting, domestic techniques employed for food preparation can reduce trypsin inhibitor concentration	Ruales and Nair (1993b); Jancurová et al. (2009); Borges et al. (2010)
	Nitrates	Found in leaves mainly. If the consumption in amount is higher can be harmful, but nitrate content is lower	Lopes et al. (2009)
	Oxalates	Contained in leaves, stem roots and hypocotyl seeds Quinoa has lower levels of Oxalic acid	Lopes et al. (2009)
Amaranth	Phytate, Phenolic compounds, Trypsin inhibitors, Chymotrypsin inhibitors, Amylase inhibitor	Seeds cooked, popped/extrusion, germinated seeds at 30, 60 and 90°C	Gamel et al. (2006); Ferreira and Arêas (2010)
Buckwheat	Trypsin activity inhibitor, alpha-amylase activity inhibitor, Poly-phenol content, Phytic acid content	Steaming, baking, boiling treatment in seeds and seedlings sprouting after 24, 48, and 72 h	Kreft (1983); Ikeda et al. (1986); Ikeda et al. (1991); Ookubo (1992); Campbell (1997); Amarowicz et al. (2008); Zhang et al. (2015)
	Tannins	Germination and sprouting can reduce protease inhibitors and increase protein digestibility. Further, dehulling grains and roasting	Kreft (1983); Ikeda et al. (1986); Ikeda et al. (1991); Ookubo (1992); Campbell (1997); Handoyo et al. (2006)