Table 3.
Meta-regression results for the association between formal and informal maternal employment and childhood overweight by log(GDP) and percentage urban in selected low- and middle-income countries*
| Log(GDP)† | Percentage urban†,‡ | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| β | 95 % CI | β | 95 % CI | |
| Formal employment§ | ||||
| All low- and middle-income countries | −0·083 | −0·21, 0·046 | −0·0025 | −0·0086, 0·0037 |
| Countries where the association did not vary by education | −0·084 | −0·22, 0·050 | −0·0023 | −0·0088, 0·0043 |
| Countries where the association varied by education: low education║ | −0·014 | −0·70, 0·67 | −0·0017 | −0·032, 0·028 |
| Countries where the association varied by education: high education║ | −0·081 | −0·35, 0·19 | −0·0064 | −0·017, 0·0045 |
| Informal employment§ | ||||
| All low- and middle-income countries | 0·0045 | −0·14, 0·15 | 0·0021 | −0·0047, 0·0089 |
| Countries where the association did not vary by education | −0·042 | −0·18, 0·096 | −0·0029 | −0·0094, 0·0036 |
| Countries where the association varied by education: low education║ | 0·083 | −0·88, 1·0 | 0·017 | −0·015, 0·050 |
| Countries where the association varied by education: high education║ | 0·11 | −0·15, 0·37 | 0·0028 | −0·0076, 0·013 |
Log(GDP), gross domestic product per capita, adjusted for purchasing power.
β coefficients were generated using meta-regression and pool estimates across country subgroups. Models were adjusted for maternal age (years), marital status (married, not married), number of household members, child’s age (months), child’s sex and substitute childcare provider (yes, no). Models which did not retain the employment ×education interaction term were also adjusted for maternal education (less than primary level of education, at least primary level of education).
Log(GDP) and percentage urban were obtained from the World Development Indicators database( 43 ) and correspond to the survey year used.
Percentage urban was defined as the number of people living in urban areas divided by the total population.
Type of employment was based on four indicators: (i) employment during the last 12 months (yes, no); (ii) aggregate occupation category (skilled, unskilled); (iii) type of earnings (cash only, cash and in-kind, in-kind only, unpaid), and (iv) seasonality of employment (all year, seasonally/occasionally).
The employment×education interaction term was retained in the following countries: Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ethiopia, Haiti, Namibia, Tanzania and Timor-Leste.