TABLE 1.
Sample characteristics by child sex
| Characteristic | Boys (n = 40) | Girls (n = 43) | P |
|---|---|---|---|
| Maternal age (y), mean ± SD | 35.4 ± 9.1 | 34.3 ± 8.5 | .59 |
| Maternal BMI, mean ± SD (excluding pregnant women) | 35.8 ± 6.1 | 35.8 ± 8.2 | .96 |
| Child age (y), mean ± SD | 5.3 ± 0.8 | 5.4 ± 1.0 | .59 |
| Child age groups (%) | |||
| 3.0–3.99 y | 2.5 | 11.6 | .08 |
| 4.0–4.99 y | 37.5 | 16.3 | |
| 5.0–5.99 y | 37.5 | 39.5 | |
| 6.0–6.99 y | 22.5 | 32.6 | |
| Census region (%) | .97 | ||
| Apia Urban Area | 37.5 | 39.5 | |
| North-west Upolu | 32.5 | 30.2 | |
| Rest of Upolu | 30.0 | 30.3 | |
| Material lifestyle score, mean ± SD (range 0–19) | 6.8 ± 4.1 | 6.9 ± 3.8 | .86 |
| School attendance, (%) | 60.0 | 65.1 | .77 |
| Child’s weight (kg), EMM ± SEa | 21.2 ± 0.6 | 19.8 ± 0.6 | .09 |
| Child’s height (cm), EMM ± SEa | 111.5 ± 1.1 | 111.1 ± 1.1 | .80 |
| Child’s BMI (kg/m2), EMM ± SEa | 16.3 ± 0.3 | 15.8 ± 0.3 | .23 |
| Child’s weight status (WHO), (%) | .05 | ||
| Normal weight | 55.0 | 79.1 | |
| Overweight | 27.5 | 16.3 | |
| Obese | 17.5 | 4.6 | |
| Child’s weight status (IOTF), (%) | .34 | ||
| Normal weight | 72.5 | 83.7 | |
| Overweight | 22.5 | 11.6 | |
| Obese | 5.0 | 4.7 | |
| Child’s TEI (calories), EMM ± SEa | 3977 ± 1195 | 4256 ± 1993 | .86 |
| Child’s TEI-adjusted nutritional intake, EMM ± SE (g)a | |||
| Protein | 143 ± 4 | 139 ± 4 | .49 |
| Carbohydrates | 513 ±9 | 536 ± 9 | .08 |
| Fat | 152 ± 4 | 155 ± 4 | .62 |
| Child’s accelerometer counts per minute (CPM), EMM ± SEa | |||
| Weekday | 2926 ± 93 | 2829 ± 93 | .52 |
| Weekend | 2934 ± 103 | 2713 ± 102 | .13 |
| Total | 2919 ± 95 | 2789 ± 94 | .34 |
| DXA measures, EMM ± SEa,b | |||
| %Body fat | 24.8 ± 0.7 | 28.3 ± 0.6 | <.001** |
| %Lean mass | 72.7 ± 0.7 | 69.2 ± 0.6 | <.001** |
| Trunk-to-peripheral fat ratio (TPFR)c | 0.62 ± 0.01 | 0.66 ± 0.01 | .02* |
Note: Bolding indicates statistically significant P values
P < .05,
P < 0.01.
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; IOTF: International Obesity Task Force; SD, standard deviation; TEI, total energy intake; WHO, World Health Organization.
Means reported for these variables are estimated marginal means (EMM) from general linear models (ANCOVA) controlling for child age.
DXA measures presented are based on total body, less head measures. For comparison with other studies that include the head in estimates of body composition, please see the following estimated marginal means ± SE: %body fat: boys 24.05 ± 3.32; girls 27.04 ± 3.85; %lean mass: boys 72.43 ± 3.24; girls 69.59 ± 3.73; Pearson correlations between estimates including and excluding the head exceeded 0.99.
A higher TPFR indicates greater fat storage in the trunk relative to the periphery.