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. 2020 Feb 24;2020:7102190. doi: 10.1155/2020/7102190

Table 1.

Dietary iron intake in pregnant women in European countries.

Country (city or region) Study period Women (n) Age (years) mean ± SD and/or range Trimester Dietary method Dietary iron mg/day Recommended iron intake at time of study mg/day Iron intake below recommended % of women Reference
Mean ± SD2 Median IQ3 range, CI4, percentiles5
Bosnia (Canton Una Sana) ∼2014 ∼40 25.6 ± 1.7 Not stated 24-hour recall 8.6     RDA 27 100% had intake <RDA [16]
Croatia (Osijek) 2010–2011 222 Not stated 1st 24-hour recall   9.5 7.5–12.43 DRI 27 100% had intake <DRI [17]
Croatia (Osijek) 2010–2011 222 Not stated 2nd 24-hour recall   10.1 7.8–13.33 DRI 27 100% had intake <DRI [17]
Croatia (Osijek) 2010–2011 222 Not stated 3rd 24-hour recall   11.2 8.7–14.6 DRI 27 100% had intake <DRI [17]
Czech Republic (Hradec Kralove Region) 2009–2010 152 28.9 ± 3.6 1st 7-day food diary 14.0 ± 3.5     RDA 27 52% had intake <RDA [18]
Czech Republic (Hradec Kralove Region) 2009–2010 152 ∼28.9 ± 3.6 2nd 7-day food diary 15.3 ± 3.5     RDA 27 57% had intake <RDA [18]
Czech Republic (Hradec Kralove Region) 2009–2010 152 ∼28.9 ± 3.6 3rd 7-day food diary 16.3 ± 3.5     RDA 27 60% had intake <RDA [18]
Finland (Oulu) 1995–1996 113 29.6 ± 5.1 3rd FFQ1 16.5 ± 4.5     RDA 157   [19]
Finland (Oulu) 1995–1996 113 29.6 ± 5.1 3rd 5-day food diary × 2 12 ± 4     RDA 157   [19]
Finland (Oulu) 1995–1996 118 29.6 ± 5.1 3rd 5-day food diary × 2   11.4 9.6–12.93 RDA 157   [20]
Finland (Oulu & Tampere) 1998–1999 797 29.6 ± 5.1 1st & 2nd & 3rd FFQ1 18 ± 6     RDA 157   [21]
Germany (Hamburg) 2011–2013 200 (95% caucasian) 31 ± 3.5 1st 24-hour recall 12 ± 4     RDA 30 100% had intake <RDA [22]
Germany (Hamburg) 2011–2013 200 (95% caucasian) ∼31 ± 3.5 2nd 24-hour recall 13 ± 3     RDA 30 100% had intake <RDA [22]
Germany (Hamburg) 2011–2013 200 (95% caucasian) ∼31 ± 3.5 3rd 24-hour recall 12 ± 3     RDA 30 100% had intake <RDA [22]
Germany (Hamburg) 2011–2013 200 (95% caucasian) ∼31 ± 3.5 1st & 2nd & 3rd 24-hour recall 12 ± 2     RDA 30 100% had intake <RDA [22]
Greece (Pireus) 2003 98 18–40 2nd FFQ 11.6 ± 5.0   10.6–12.64 DRI 30 (27)see text 100% had intake <DRI [23]
Greece (Pireus) 2003 102 18–40 3rd FFQ 11.9 ± 4.9   11.0–12.94 DRI 30 (27)see text 100% had intake <DRI [23]
Greece (Athens) 2012 56 18–42 1st & 2nd 24-hour recall × 3 ∼15.4 ± 6.4     DRI 27 98% had intake <DRI [24]
Hungary (Budapest) 1990–1994 70 22.9 ± 4.4 (19–38) 1st, 2nd & 3rd FFQ 11.3 ± 4.1     RDA 20 81% had intake <70% of RDA [25]
Ireland (Dublin) 2013 402 30.8 ± 5.2 1st FFQ 19.3 ± 10.3 17.0   RDA 14 37% had intake <RDA [26]
Norway (Nationwide MoBa study) 2002–2005 7,455 nonsupplement users 29.2 ± 4.8 2nd FFQ 10.8 ± 3.4 10.3 6.1–17.15 RDA 157   [27]
Norway (Nationwide MoBa Study) 2002–2005 32,653 supplement users 29.2 ± 4.8 2nd FFQ 11.3 ± 3.4 10.9 6.6–17.65 RDA 157   [27]
Norway (Oslo Region) 2003–2004 119 31.2 ± 4.1 (23–44) 2nd FFQ   11 7–195 RDA 157   [28]
Norway (Oslo Region) 2003–2004 119 31.2 ± 4.1 (23–44) 2nd 4-day weighed food diary   10 7–155 RDA 157   [28]
Poland (Nationwide) 2009 512 20–35 3rd 7-day food diary 10.1     RDA 24 ∼100% had intake <RDA [29]
Portugal (Porto) 2004–2005 249 29.2 ± 6.6 (18–40) 3rd FFQ   16.0 12.5–19.23 AR 22 88% had intake <AR [30]
Portugal (Porto) 2004–2005 70 ∼29.8 ± 4.9 3rd FFQ × 2 16.2 ± 5.5         [31]
Portugal (Porto) 2004–2005 101 29.8 ± 4.9 1st 3-day food diary 14.4 ± 4.8         [31]
Portugal (Porto) 2004–2005 101 ∼29.8 ± 4.9 2nd 3 days food diary 14.3 ± 4.9         [31]
Portugal (Porto) 2004–2005 101 ∼29.8 ± 4.9 3rd 3-day food diary 14.3 ± 5.0         [31]
Portugal (Porto) 2004–2005 101 ∼29.8 ± 4.9 1st & 2nd & 3rd 3-day food diary 14.4 ± 3.7         [31]
Spain (Reus) 1991–1995 80 24–35 Preconception ≤12 weeks 7-day food diary 8.3 ± 3.0     RDA 18 ∼98% had intake <RDA [32]
Spain (Reus) 1991–1995 80 24–35 1st 7-day food diary ∼8.1 ± 2.1     RDA 18 ∼98% had intake <RDA [32]
Spain (Reus) 1991–1995 80 24–35 3rd 7-day food diary ∼8.5 ± 2.8     RDA 18 ∼98% had intake <RDA [32]
Spain (Reus) 1991–1995 80 24–35 Postpartum 6 weeks 7-day food diary 8.2 ± 2.3     RDA 18 ∼98% had intake <RDA [32]
Spain (INMA-Valencia) 2004–2005 822 ∼17–40 1st FFQ 20.7 ± 3.4 20.4 15.6–27.05 AR 22 DRI 27 68% had intake <DRI [33]
Sweden (Umeå)∗ 2006–2009 209 23–40 1st FFQ ∼13.1   ∼12.5–13.84 RDA 157 98% had intake <RDA [34]
UK (south West England) (ALSPAC) 1991–1992 11,923 27.9 ± 5.0 (15–44) 3rd FFQ 10.4 ± 3.3 10.2 5.4–16.25 RNI 14.8 ∼75% had intake <RNI [35]
UK (Southampton) 1991–1992 569 caucasians 26.4 ± 4.8 1st FFQ   15.0 12.2–18.63 RNI 14.8   [36]
UK (Southampton) 1991–1992 569 causasians 26.4 ± 4.8 1st 4-day food diary   10.1 7.9–12.43 RNI 14.8   [36]
UK (London) 2002 42 caucasians 33.2 ± 4.6 (19–40) 1st 4–7 day weighed food diary 12.3 ± 4.6     RNI 14.8 71% had intake <RNI [37]
UK (London) 2002 42 caucasians ∼33.2 ± 4.6 (19–40) 2nd 4–7 day weighed food diary 12.1 ± 3.5     RNI 14.8 79% had intake <RNI [37]
UK (London) 2002 42 caucasians ∼33.2 ± 4.6 (19–40) 3rd 4–7 day weighed food diary 13.0 ± 5.3     RNI 14.8 67% had intake <RNI [37]
UK (London) 2002 42 caucasians ∼33.2 ± 4.6 (19–40) Postpartum 4–7 day weighed food diary 12.3 ± 4.5     RNI 14.8 81% had intake <RNI [37]
UK (Sheffield) 2003–2004 123 caucasians 29 ± 6.4 (17–43) 1st FFQ 11.2 ± 3.9   4.7–21.16 RNI 14.8   [38]
UK (Sheffield) 2003–2004 123 caucasians 29 ± 6.4 (17–43) 1st 24-hour recall × 2 8.0 ± 2.8   2.6–17.86 RNI 14.8   [38]
UK (Leeds) 2003–2006 1,257 18–45 1st 24-hour recall 11.5 ± 5.3     RNI 14.8 80% had intake <RNI [39]

1FFQ = Food Frequency Questionnaire; 2SD = standard deviation; 3IQ range = interquartile range, 25–75 percentiles; 4CI = 95% confidence interval; 55–95 percentile range; 6observed range; 7RDA for women of reproductive age. No specific recommendation for pregnant women; they are recommended oral iron supplements. AR = Estimated Average Requirement; daily intake levels estimated to meet the needs of half of the healthy pregnant women. DRI = Dietary Reference Intake; nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies (USA). RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance; daily intake adequate to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97%–98%) healthy pregnant women. RNI = Reference Nutrient Intake; daily intake adequate to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97.5%) healthy pregnant women.