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Mechanism of action of phosphodiesterase-4 inhibitors (PDE4Is) in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). cAMP, cyclic adenosine monophosphate; CFTR, cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator; ASL, airway-surface liquid; MUC5AC, mucin 5AC; HDAC2, histone deacetylase 2; GR, glucocorticoid receptor; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TLR3, toll-like receptor 3.
