Table 3.

Factors associated with average morphine equivalent daily dose above threshold values during the study period (N=14,221)

	Odds Ratio, 95% Confidence Interval
Covariates	MEDD ≥50 mg	MEDD ≥90 mg
Age	0.97 (0.97–0.98)*	0.96 (0.96–0.97)*
Sex: Female vs. Male	0.65 (0.60–0.71)*	0.67 (0.59–0.76)*
Race: Black, Non-Hispanic vs. White, Non-Hispanic	0.71 (0.63–0.79)*	0.41 (0.34–0.49)*
Insurance (vs. Commercial)
Medicare	1.21 (1.06–1.39)†	1.30 (1.06–1.58)†
Medicaid	1.09 (0.91–1.29)	1.13 (0.89–1.43)
Other/Uninsured/Self-pay	1.04 (0.86–1.26)	1.48 (1.15–1.90) *
Charlson Co-morbidity Index Score	0.97 (0.95–0.99)†	0.92 (0.89–0.96)*
Diagnosis: Depression/Anxiety (Yes vs. No)	1.08 (0.98–1.20)	1.16 (1.00–1.35)†
Diagnosis: Substance Abuse (Yes vs. No)	2.63 (2.36–2.93)*	4.74 (4.07–5.52)*
Prescribed Benzodiazepines	1.06 (0.95–1.18)	1.02 (0.87–1.21)
Opioid Risk Tool Completed (Yes vs. No)	1.00 (0.88–1.13)	0.91 (0.76–1.10)
Non-Opioid Pain Medication (Yes vs. No)	0.85 (0.78–0.94)†	0.72 (0.63–0.82)*
Specialty Referral (Yes vs. No)	0.93 (0.85–1.02)	0.68 (0.60–0.77)*
Pain Contract	1.15 (1.01–1.32)†	1.55 (1.29–1.85)*

^*P<0.001

^†P<0.05